Explore how biology and chemistry intersect all the way down at the molecular level using our extensive library of 3D, interactive content!

Chemistry

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of matter! Did you know that chemistry is also called “the central science,” because of its role in bridging physics with other natural sciences? Let's dive into learning more on the composition and the physical and chemical properties of various forms of matter!  

Understand the concepts of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, enzyme reaction, with our interactive 3D models and study guides.

Do you rely on PMAT - the famous acronym to remember the stages of mitosis? That's a good strategy! We give you that and much more to ace your AP test through our study guides and interactive 3D models.

Understand Mendel's laws of heredity and how characteristics are passed down from parents to offspring. Discover more about his work in our informative study guides and associated 3D models.

Transcription, translation and replication, the 3 most important topics for any Biology student. Learn these and more with our interesting study guides and 3D models.

Always heard about the theory 'survival of the fittest'? Learn more of what it is based on with our informative study guides and interactive 3D models.

Explore the connection between plants, animals and the world around them through the study guides and interactive 3D models.

Get familiar with the structure and function of different cell organelles by using our interactive 3D models and study guides.

Learn about human physiology and complex organ systems with the help of our informative study guides and interactive 3D models.

More similar the DNA sequences of different organisms, the closer is the evolutionary relationship between them. Discover quirky facts about genetics and evolution with our interactive 3D models and study guides.

Explore the fascinating animal kingdom with our interactive study guides and 3D models. We do a deep dive into the evolution, classification, and behaviors with interactive 3D models.

Explore the structure, function, and behavior of cells in cell biology. Our interactive 3D models and detailed study guides will help you ace the exams!

Learn about the biosphere, ecosystems, habitats, populations, and communities with our interactive 3D model and study guides.

Evolution won't be a complex concept once you use Inspirit's engaging 3D models and detailed study guides.

Enter the fascinating world of genetics, the study of inheritance with our popular 3D models. Our easy-to-read study guides explain complex concepts in a super simple way!

Learn about human physiology and complex systems with the help of our interactive 3D models and informative study guides.

Deep dive into the human body and the organized and efficient human organ system. Let's learn about all this with the help of the following study guides and supporting 3D models.

Biology 101 for you! If biology has always been a point of interest to you, but you didn't know where to start, the comprehensive list of study guides and 3D models below are your best bet!

Learn and explore the characteristics of invertebrates with detailed study guides and very real 3D models.

Study the fascinating world of the plant kingdom learn about their structures, reproductive and growth processes. All of this delivered to you with our engaging 3D models.

Is a virus a prokaryote or eukaryote? Or neither? Or both? We'll help you answer that and much more via our fun and interactive study guides with loads of 3D models.

Like the cells of protists, the cells of fungi have cell walls. Wow! Explore more about the structure and function of protists and fungi in these study guides.

What are the distinguishing traits for different classes of vertebrates? No idea? Don't worry! We've got your back. Engage with our study guides and interactive 3D models to recognize these traits.

Learn about acids and bases, calculating pH, strong and a weak acids and bases, titration experiments, and more using our library of gamified study guides, 3D models, and interactive simulations.

Explore modern atomic theory by performing the experiments that established it, build your own atom in 3D, and use study guides and gamified challenges to become an expert on atomic structure!

Compare the five major types of chemical reactions and learn how to write them in a balanced equation using our comprehensive study guides, gamified challenges, and interactive simulations!

Learn the rules of chemical nomenclature with the help of clear and comprehensive study guides, gamified challenges, and plenty of practice problems to make you a chemical classification pro!

Dive into this unit to learn about the types properties, and shapes of covalent bonds and the theories we use to explain why through comprehensive study guides, 3D models, and interactive simulations. 

Learn about electrical potential, voltaic cells, electrolysis, redox reactions, and more with the help of our easy-to-read study guides, interactive 3D models, and simulations.

Have you ever wondered why the atoms of different elements behave differently? Find out the science behind it with the help of our gamified study guides, 3D models, and interactive simulations.

Dive deeper into the concepts of entropy and free energy by exploring our comprehensive library of interactive 3D models, study guides, simulations, and more!

Learn about reversible reactions, chemical equilibrium, product constants, and more—all with the help of our immersive 3D study guides, models, and simulations.

Dive into one of the most exciting fields in science to learn about the the structure, composition, properties, and reactive characteristics of matter, all in 3D!

Explore the characteristics and properties of ionic and metallic bonds in an entirely new way using study guides, practice problems, and 3D, interactive simulations.

Check out our library of 3D study guides and simulations to understand important concepts in chemical kinetics like collision theory, activation energy, reaction order, catalysts, and more!

Everything is made of matter, but what is matter anyway? Learn about its composition, properties, and states in 3D and watch how they change with the help of our interactive models and simulations!

Learn about how different factors are measured, the units they use, and how they’re analyzed with our study guides, cheatsheets, worksheets, and more to master measurement in chemistry!

Dive into nuclear chemistry and engage with its concepts at the atomic level using our interactive 3D models and simulations!

Master orgo with the help of our extensive, 3D-rich library of resources to learn all about the structure, properties, composition, and reactive tendencies of organic compounds.

Learn to identify a redox reaction and balance its chemical equation using our extensive library of interactive content to learn everything you need to know (and more) about oxidation-reduction reactions!

Learn about the laws of solubility, molarity, molality, dilution, and more by exploring our 3D study guides, then apply what you learn by making your own solution in an interactive 3D simulation!

Learn about the states of matter using our detailed study guides and interactive 3D simulations that won’t only tell you how it works, but show you too.

Learn about the relationship between the reactants and products of a chemical reaction with the help of our study guides, practice problems, and simulations to make stoichiometry calculations a breeze.

Visualize periodic trends, atomic behavior, 3D orbitals, and more using an all-in-one, interactive periodic table customized just for you.

Master the mole and all of its applications in chemistry in no time with the help of our detailed study guides, 3D models, simulations, practice calculations, and more!

Become an expert on the ideal gas laws by exploring how pressure, volume, temperature, and particle count affect the behavior of a gas using our interactive simulations and 360° 3D models!

Dive into the details of changes in energy during phase changes and chemical reactions and visualize how thermochemical processes work with the help of our 3D models and interactive simulations.

Water might not seem that special, but it’s actually a rather unusual molecule in the world of chemistry. Check out our library of study guides, 3D models, and interactive simulations to find out why!

Why do the planets always revolve around the sun? Why hasn't there been a single instance where a planet has fallen? Find out with Inspirits interactive study guides, 3D models and simulations.

What do we think about when a vehicle collides with a wall? The damage caused? What about the transfer of energy? Use our interactive study guides and simulations and start thinking outside the box.

Use 3D models to understand energy, voltage, and the flow of electric current in a circuit. Play around with the simulations and refer to the study guides for this topics to make learning fun.

Prepare to get mind blown with our extensive set of resources to learn the concept of electric current. Take a look at our study guides, interactive 3D models, and simulations and pick your choice. 

A microwave oven and a telivision set require elctromagnetic radiation to function. Surprised? Walk into a world of such fascinating facts. Explore our 3D models, interactive study guides and simulations

Study about the unquie and fascinating concept of electromagnetism with our study guides and 3D models.

Have you heard of the scientist who ran naked on the road, shouting 'Eureka'? Want to know more about his discoveries that made him forget himself? Go visit our resourceful 3D library and learn more.

What are Laws of Motion? Who penned them down? Why are they important? Discover the answers to these and more questions with our user friendly study guides and associated 3D models.

Did you know, when bunjee jumping, a person undergoes simple harmonic motion? Learn more about this is this awesome unit which is loaded with 3D included, interactive study guides and simulations.

Why are the planets always orbiting around the sun? Check out our physics study guides, 3D models and simulations, to get these and many more questions answered. 

Enter the fascinating world of magnets with our popular 3D models. Our easy-to-read study guides explain complex concepts in a super simple way!

Explore the world of modern physics through these study guides and interactive 3D models. 

Check out our rich interactive study guides and 3D models, to learn the physics of basketball, golf, javellin throw, and any other topic related to motion in 2D!

Ever wondered why trees appear to be moving backwards while you zoom past them on a highway? It's beacuse of motion in one-dimension. Explore more using our 3D rich study guides and interactive models.

These study guides extensively cover the differnt concepts of optical physics, they are supported with a bunch of almost real looking interactive 3D models, ray diagrams and simulations too. 

Why is the wheel always circular? Why wasnt it designed as a square or a traingle? Let's use Inspirit's extensive 3D rich library to learn more.

Do you own a pair of scissors, a jar with a lid and a bottle opener? Want to know how these are part of world of machines? Check out study guides, 3D models and simulations. 

Is sound and noise the same thing? Maybe yes, maybe no. Let's learn more with these study guides, interactive 3D models and more.

Explore the different cpncepts of static electricity with these interactive study guides, 3D models and simulations.

When a solid substance is heated, the particels vibrate and take up more space, causing expansion. Fascinating right??  Discover fun facts like this in our study guides and interactive 3D models.

AP Bio

CBSE Biology

CBSE Chemistry

CBSE Physics

CBSE Science

General Bio

General Chemistry

General Physics

Master - Models

__Adenine (A)__

Adenine (A) is a nucleotide base that pairs with thymine (T) in the DNA double helix. Adenine is one of the two purine nucleotide bases, along with guanine, that forms the building blocks of DNA. The chemical structure of adenine makes it particularly susceptible to oxidative damage, leading to possible errors in DNA replication and transcription.

__Guanine (G)__

Guanine (G) is a nucleotide base that pairs with cytosine (C) in the DNA double helix. It is one of the two purine nucleotide bases, along with adenine, that forms the building blocks of DNA. It can be damaged, leading to mutations and cancer, but DNA repair mechanisms can remove and repair damaged guanine.

__Cytosine (C)__

Cytosine (C) is a nucleotide base that pairs with guanine (G) in the DNA double helix. A chemical reaction can sometimes cause cytosine (C) to become uracil (U). This can lead to mutations and genetic instability, but cells have DNA repair mechanisms that can remove and repair damaged cytosine.

__Thymine (T)__

Thymine (T) is a nucleotide base found in DNA that pairs with adenine (A) through hydrogen bonds to form a complementary base pair. Thymine (T) plays a critical role in DNA replication and transcription, as it is responsible for maintaining the sequence of genetic information.

__DNA strand__

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic blueprint for all living organisms, composed of two strands forming a double helix structure.  Each strand consists of a backbone of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules, with nucleotide bases attached to the sugar molecules.


DNA Thumbnail

Studying for the AP exams can be stressful, and the overload of information can be overwhelming. Our AP Biology study guides are designed to structure your study session around crucial information that you need to ace your test. These guides cover important AP Bio concepts per unit, while also providing supporting VR-based classrooms and study sessions on the Inspirit App!

CBSE

Our CBSE study guides are structured to mimic your chapter-wise, detailed, revision notes! We’ve ensured to structure our guides around crucial concepts that you’ll need to ace your exams, while being quick and easy to understand. Make sure to also check out the supporting VR-based classrooms and study sessions on the Inspirit App!

General

If biology has always been a point of interest to you but you’ve never known where to start, or how to structure your learning, our study guides are your best bet! Our General Biology study guides cover popular, important topics that can supplement your learning journey. Each guide also links out to its supporting VR-based classroom on the Inspirit App to make the educational experience more engaging and fun!

Molecular Biology

Biochemistry

Genetics

## INTRODUCTION

Triglycerides are the most common form of fat in the human body and are stored in fat cells. They contribute to your ability to maintain energy throughout the day. The clinical name for increased triglycerides is known as Hypertriglyceridemia. High triglyceride levels raise your risk of acquiring ailments like cardiovascular disease and pancreatitis, so testing its level in your body and controlling it can help you avoid certain serious diseases.

![triglyceride formula](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4zqKVpIYvFMWsS6rvPhIdc/307d1170b616558cf1a585ce145c9e89/450px-Fat_triglyceride_shorthand_formula.PNG)
[Source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride)

### STRUCTURE OF TRIGLYCERIDE

Triglyceride has two key components in its chemical composition: glycerol and fatty acids. 

- Glycerol is three-carbon alcohol with hydroxyl groups on each of its carbon atoms. 
- Long hydrocarbon chains with a single carboxyl group at one end are referred to as fatty acids. 

The fatty acids are connected to all the three carbons of the glycerol molecule with an ester bond through an oxygen atom in the triglyceride molecule. 

There may be triglycerides saturated or unsaturated. The primary distinction between saturated and unsaturated triglycerides is that saturated triglycerides have only single carbon-atom bonds, whereas unsaturated triglyceride structures have double or triple carbon-atom bonds.

### DIFFERENT TRIGLYCERIDE LEVELS

A blood test called a lipid panel checks both your triglyceride and cholesterol levels. The levels based on the fasting blood levels are:

- Standard triglyceride level: <150 mg/dL
- Borderline triglyceride level: 150 to 199 mg/dL
- High triglyceride level: 200 to 499 mg/dL
- Very High triglyceride level: 500 mg/dL or above

![Triglycerides](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3eYwOp7ZoOdRxjSt0e1aYI/eb18279f2b00df6c02e837936b50bf4c/WhatFoodsCauseTriglycerides_1087467_Final_1-09231c5b733443428b820171db570827.jpg)
[Source](https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-foods-cause-high-triglycerides-1087467)

### CAUSES OF HIGH TRIGLYCERIDES

What you eat or other personal choices you make plays a significant role in maintaining decent triglyceride levels, and they are frequently the primary cause of elevated levels. The kind of diet you follow plays a crucial role in affecting triglyceride levels. High glycemic index carbohydrates like french fries and doughnuts, and other saturated fat-rich foods raise triglyceride levels. Smoking has a serious effect on triglyceride levels. 

The more you weigh—that is, the more your energy stores aren't being used up, the greater your triglyceride levels will be. Lack of proper exercise is another reason behind the storage of triglyceride levels in the blood. Too much consumption of alcohol harms the pancreas and liver. Genetics also play an important role in the association of elevated triglyceride levels.

### FAQs

__1. What causes triglycerides to be high?__

Not having a proper diet, smoking cigarettes, being overweight, drinking habits, certain kinds of medications, and not having a daily exercise routine are some of the reasons that cause triglyceride levels to shoot up.

__2. How can I lower my triglycerides fast?__

Including more physical activities in the daily routine, losing weight along with the proper intake of fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats, and lowering alcohol consumption can lower the triglyceride levels.

__3. What to eat to reduce triglycerides?__

Fibrates lower triglyceride levels and improve cholesterol levels considerably. Omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oil can aid in lowering triglycerides. Plant-based omega-3 acids, such as flaxseed, may be beneficial. Niacin (nicotinic acid) has been shown to reduce triglycerides by up to 50%.

__4. What is the alarming level of triglycerides?__

The alarming level of triglyceride is the ranges between 150 to 199 mg/dL.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Triglycerides__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

### SOURCES: 

1. Triglycerides:https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/triglycerides/lesson/Triglycerides-CHEM/.Accessed 9th March 2022.
2. What are Triglycerides?: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-triglycerides-definition-lesson-quiz.html#:~:text=that%20can%20help.-,Lesson%20Summary,of%20triglycerides%20are%20broken%20down.Accessedc9th March 2022.


This article helps to explain the problems created by the increased triglycerides level in the human body and how you can combat the issue.


Triglycerides Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Each of our body's cells is wrapped in a small membrane bubble. The consistency of this membrane is similar to that of salad oil! At first, it wasn't very reassuring! Salad oil appears to be an extremely delicate barrier to erect between a cell and the outside world. Fortunately, the plasma membrane proves to be an excellent fit for its purpose. What precisely is it supposed to do? The plasma membrane establishes the cell's boundaries and permits it to interact with its surroundings in a controlled manner. Phospholipids, which form a semi-permeable boundary between the cell and its environment, are required for the plasma membrane to fulfill these functions.

![Phospholipid arrangement in cell membranes.](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4R0UHGtqaEYpxvDU57fmhX/d78a0eab8f14e222a53ebc855bd061e9/Phospholipid_TvanBrussel.edit.jpg)
[Source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipid)

### PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Phospholipids are polar lipids composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit, and a phosphate group esterified to an organic molecule.
Since they are amphipathic, which means they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas, they are well-suited for this task.
The hydrophilic (or "water-loving") component of a phospholipid is its head, which comprises a negatively charged phosphate unit and a tiny group that may or may not be charged or polar. 

![Phospholipid](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4ppLFrX69IKeGllaIGshJR/ddc29f7174795f8418cbc65708f4e0f2/f-d_b1572fe8ce438e472891aa45745985d957c98572fa7fe49ada0bbffe_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/phospholipids/lesson/Phospholipids-CHEM/)

### PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER

- In a membrane bilayer, the hydrophilic heads of phospholipids face outwards, touching the aqueous fluid both inside and outside the cell. Because water is polar, it creates electrostatic connections with phospholipid heads easily.
- Longer, nonpolar fatty acid tails make up the hydrophobic component. 
- Fatty acid tails can interact easily with other nonpolar molecules, even though they have difficulty interacting with water. 
- As a result, it is more energy efficient for phospholipids to bury their fatty acid tails into the core of the membrane, where they will be protected from the aquatic environment. 

![Phospholipid Bilayer](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4f9WmYkVNYkJpspETZ5Qwr/df92ad34e9cc37a7fe88cf38163f2c29/26ffb8e955fba1897b562cb0b93e8cadf621dfc5.png)
[Source](https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-function/plasma-membranes/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane) 

- Since water and other polar or charged molecules cannot easily traverse the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, the phospholipid bilayer generated by these interactions serves as a good barricade between the interior and exterior of the cell.

### BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE

- Bilayers of phospholipids are essential constituents of cell membranes. 
- The lipid bilayer creates a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell, preventing chemicals and ions from passing through. 
- The cell membrane does, however, play an essential role in allowing selective transmission of particular materials into and out of cells. 
- Integrating various protein molecules in and through the lipid bilayer achieves this. 
- These proteins create channels that allow specified ions and chemicals to pass through. 
- Connected carbohydrates on the exterior of the lipid bilayer allow several membrane proteins to make hydrogen bonds with water.

![Phospholipid](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7b8FFiovE15X81PBjJJ7ze/7aa70f8b3bbe147738c3bf3bbc479c09/f-d_4c9538c4a4877bec619654d251eed558d7646a3b1050c26f7600c237_IMAGE_TINY_IMAGE_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/phospholipids/lesson/Phospholipids-CHEM/)

## CONCLUSION: 
- Phospholipids are polar lipids composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit, and a phosphate group.
- Bilayers of phospholipids are essential constituents of cell membranes.

### FAQs: 

__1. What does a phospholipid look like?__

The phospholipid has two tails emerging from the head and is structured like a thumbtack. The phosphate group is at the top, while the two fatty acids are at the bottom. The heads are hydrophilic and are proximal to the membrane's inner and outer surfaces.

__2. Which is a phospholipid?__

Phospholipids are polar lipids composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit and a phosphate group esterified to an organic molecule.

__3. What is a phospholipid, and what is its function?__

Phospholipids are lipids that include phosphoric acids, nitrogen bases, alcohol, and fatty acids in a compound form. These compound lipids are important components of the cellular membranes and give them a fluid appearance.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Phospholipid Images__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:
1. Structure of the Plasma Membrane: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-function/plasma-membranes/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane Accessed 27 Feb 2022
2. Phospholipids: https://www.thoughtco.com/phospholipids-373561 Accessed 27 Feb 2022
3. Phospholipids: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/phospholipids/ Accessed 27 Feb 2022


 Phospholipids are polar lipids composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit and a phosphate group.


Phospholipid Image Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

Have you ever wondered why an elephant invariably gives birth to an elephant baby and never to a different animal?  Or why does a mango seed only grow into a mango plant and not some other? It occurs as a result of Inheritance (the process through which traits are passed down from one generation to the next). But who relays this information from the parent to the offspring? For transmitting any message, we need a messenger. In this case, the genetic materials, DNA, and RNA act as messengers to carry the information from one generation to another. Let's learn more about these genetic materials in more detail.  

![Baby elephant and mother](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3IyxIWWei0UMCsRux1aWpw/735ff5bda545daa8eec2e01b214c6b1c/elephant-mama-and-baby-Asian-elephants.jpg)
[Source](https://elefootprints.com/blogs/elephant-conservation/6-reasons-elephant-moms-are-the-best-mothers)

### TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two primary forms of nucleic acids. DNA is the genetic substance present in all living species, from single-celled bacteria to multicellular animals.
RNA, the other form of nucleic acid, is used mostly in protein production. In eukaryotes, DNA molecules never exit the nucleus and instead interact with the remainder of the cell through an intermediate. The messenger RNA serves as an intermediate in this process (mRNA).

### NUCLEOTIDES

Nucleotides are monomers that makeup DNA and RNA. The nucleotides unite to produce a polynucleotide, such as DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide consists of three parts:

1. a nitrogenous base
2. a pentose (five-carbon) sugar
3. a phosphate groups

In a nucleotide, every nitrogenous base is linked to a sugar molecule, which itself is linked to one or even more phosphate groups.

![DNA and RNA](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3jxlHllgysLKLFxJcUxfBx/9eeded9e8153c1f297af1771dfd36318/figure-03-05-01.jpeg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/dna-and-rna/)

### NITROGENOUS BASE

- The nitrogenous bases are organic compounds because they include both carbon and nitrogen.
- Purines are the amino acids adenine and guanine. Pyrimidines are the bases of cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

### DNA:

- There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA- thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and adenine (A) that interlinked to form a ladder structure.  
- The adenine is paired with thymine consisting of two hydrogen bonds while cytosine is paired with guanine consisting of three hydrogen bonds.

### RNA:

- The nitrogenous bases in RNA don’t include thymine (T).  
- Instead of thymine (T), it includes uracil (U) along with adenine (A), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

![Difference-Between-DNA-and-RNA](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3hpmgY3C8ABXbeWh9VpSXc/069239d1087b7fcdf38244ae9b4b0024/Difference-Between-DNA-and-RNA.png)
[Source](https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-dna-and-rna/)

## CONCLUSION: 

- The nitrogenous bases present in DNA are thymine(T), guanine(G), cytosine(C), and adenine(A). 
- Thymine is the nitrogenous base which not found in RNA.
- Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Uracil (U) are the bases present in RNA.

### FAQs:

__1. Which nitrogenous base is not present in RNA?__

The thymine nitrogenous base is not present in RNA. 

__2. Name the bases present in RNA.__ 

Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Uracil (U) are the bases present in RNA.

__3. Which bases are present in DNA?__ 

The nitrogenous bases present in DNA are thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and adenine (A). Thymine is the nitrogenous base which not found in RNA.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about which base is found in __DNA but not in RNA!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES: 

1. DNA and RNA. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/dna-and-rna/lesson/DNA-and-RNA-CHEM/. Accessed 16 Feb, 2022. 
2. DNA and RNA. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/dna-and-rna/. Accessed 16 Feb, 2022. 


Which base is found in DNA but not in RNA?

DNA and RNA Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Proteins are the building blocks of our bodies. We classify them based on their structure, which is formed when amino acids condense together to form peptide bonds. The primary structure of every protein is a sequence of amino acids called a polypeptide chain. Proteins have different dihedral angles of their peptide bonds, which determine their secondary structure. The tertiary structure of a protein results from the way the protein chains fold in space. Lastly, quaternary structure is how folded polypeptide molecules form complex functional proteins. This is an overview of how protein is made. In this article, we will learn more about different protein structures.

### PRIMARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

![primary-structure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1BplUKbojeCaVCRcPKX2iL/46156ed50ba25b9b353661c02169dd3e/primary-structure.png)
[Source](https://byjus.com/chemistry/protein-structure-and-levels-of-protein/)

Let's take a look at some of the properties of the primary structure of a protein:

- The exact order in which amino acids are arranged to form chains is known as the primary structure of a protein.
- The final fold of the protein is determined by this sequence, which in turn determines the specific function of the protein.
- When polypeptides are chained together, they form proteins. The amino acids in these chains are arranged in a particular sequence. This sequence is the identity of the protein and the task it performs. Any disruption in the sequence can change the functioning of the protein.
- Genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia, albinism, etc., can be linked to alterations in primary protein structures.

### SECONDARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

Let's look at some of the properties of secondary protein structures:

- Polypeptides are protein molecules that are chained together to form proteins, but they do not exist in a simple chain structure.
- Polypeptide chains tend to fold because of the interaction that happens between the carboxyl and amino groups of the peptide link.
- The secondary protein structure is the shape that long polypeptide chains form.
- The two popular structures formed due to the folding of chains are helix and pleated sheet structures.

### TERTIARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

- When the secondary protein structure folds further, it forms a tertiary structure.
- A number of forces are involved in stabilizing the tertiary structure.
- The two most commonly found tertiary protein structures are fibrous and globular.
- The electrostatic force of attraction is one of the major forces that stabilize the secondary and tertiary structures. 

### QUATERNARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

![Quaternary-structure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3nHNmz0OuyuhOkWjceNW9X/152ec6785c172fa30aa317cfe9d3ba15/quaternary-structure.png)
[Source](https://byjus.com/chemistry/protein-structure-and-levels-of-protein/)

- The manner in which tertiary structures are spatially arranged gives rise to quaternary protein structure. 
- When a protein is made of two or more polypeptide chains, each chain is referred to as a subunit. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is a quaternary protein structure. 

## CONCLUSION: 

- Protein structure is formed when amino acids condense together to form peptide bonds.
- There are four types of protein structures: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary.
- A protein has the amino acid sequence, which is its primary structure.
- Secondary structure is the shape that polypeptide chains form.
- Tertiary structure is the shape that is formed when the secondary structure folds even more.
- Quaternary structure is formed due to the spatial arrangement of sub-units.

### FAQs

__1. What are the four structures of protein?__

There are four types of protein structures: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary.

__2. What is protein structure and function?__

When amino acids condense to form peptide bonds, it is known as the protein structure.

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## SOURCES:  

1. Protein Structure and Levels of Protein: https://byjus.com/chemistry/protein-structure-and-levels-of-protein/. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
2. Protein Structure: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/proteins/lecture/Protein-Structure/.Accessed 28 Feb 2022. 


A protein structure is a manner in which amino acids condense together to form peptide bonds. There are four types of protein structures. Let's read to learn more about the different types of protein structures. 



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