Dive into this unit to learn about the types properties, and shapes of covalent bonds and the theories we use to explain why through comprehensive study guides, 3D models, and interactive simulations. 

Chemistry

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of matter! Did you know that chemistry is also called “the central science,” because of its role in bridging physics with other natural sciences? Let's dive into learning more on the composition and the physical and chemical properties of various forms of matter!  

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Dive into one of the most exciting fields in science to learn about the the structure, composition, properties, and reactive characteristics of matter, all in 3D!

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Simulation Build

When two atoms with unequal electronegativities form a covalent bond, the electrons contributed to the resulting molecule are shared unequally between them. This creates an uneven distribution of partial charges across the molecule, which is defined as molecular polarity. This simulation shows this concept in action. You will learn about dipoles, partial charges, electrostatic potential, electron density through experimenting with different variables and seeing their effects on a molecule.

molecular polarity 

Molecular Polarity

## INTRODUCTION: 

In the late 1940s, the phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered. Nuclear fission is splitting an atom's nucleus into two or smaller nuclei. At that time, the true potential of this phenomenon was not widely known. It was thought to be a process where a tremendous amount of energy was released, suitable only for annihilation. 

Who would have thought that such a destructive form of energy could be used to light up our homes or street lights? The only exception is the difference in the environment where the reaction occurs. Like this exception, rules for molecule bonding also offer exceptions. Curious? Let's know more regarding the types of exceptions to the octet rule and the list of elements that are exceptions to the octet rule!

## WHAT IS THE OCTET RULE?
Before we look into the exceptions of the octet rule, we need to understand what the octet rule is! As per the octet rule, atoms gain or lose electrons in order to achieve an outer shell electron configuration that is closest to that of a noble gas. This is because the noble gas electronic configuration (eight-electron arrangement in the outer electron shell) is the most stable in the entire periodic table and it’s a natural tendency of any element to move towards more stability. 

![Octet-Rule-Examples](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4U49f3nPaCA58a4KcC6B1Q/ba09ad125198ba74c0b221debd998616/Octet-Rule-Examples.jpg)
[Source](https://www.chemistrylearner.com/octet-rule.html)

![Nuclear Power](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5gbVRzDATfS5FgZxSLJR6T/ccd447b02f6d38a97f95fc76c2842eae/istock-157381539_1200x630.jpg)
[Source](https://www.nrdc.org/stories/nuclear-power-101)

### TYPES OF EXCEPTION TO OCTET RULE:

There are three types of exceptions to the octet rule: 

(1) Incomplete octets

(2) Odd-electron molecules

(3) Enlarged octets

### 1. INCOMPLETE OCTET:

There aren't enough electrons in hydrogen, beryllium, or boron to complete an octet. An octet is the eight-electron arrangement in the outer electron shell of the noble-gas atoms.  

![Lewis-dot](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1cCh4rQzKY1S99SQPVsxBj/1d08d0b27802f70e28ce3ed777d6fef5/Lewis-dot-58f78f405f9b581d5938e617.jpg)
[Source](https://www.thoughtco.com/exceptions-to-the-octet-rule-603993) 

The core beryllium and boron atoms in the two molecules represented in this image have less than eight valence electrons and hence do not meet the octet rule. 

### 2. EXPANDED OCTET: 

Elements with periods larger than 3 have a d orbital with the same energy quantum number on the periodic chart. Although atoms in these periods obey the octet rule, there are times when their valence shells can extend to accept more than eight electrons. 

![Sulfur Octet Rule](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6LzRVcV1ZUFxChYMEkd0bB/b75fac7c07670bea2359d473c3988a54/SulfurOctetRule-56a12a2c3df78cf77268035f.png)
[Source](https://www.thoughtco.com/exceptions-to-the-octet-rule-603993)

This is most commonly seen with sulfur and phosphorus. As in the molecule SF₂, sulfur can follow the octet rule. Each atom has eight electrons around it. It is possible to sufficiently excite the sulfur atom to force valence electrons into the d orbital, allowing compounds like SF₄ and SF₆ to form. The sulfur atom in SF₄ contains 10 valence electrons, whereas the sulfur atom in SF₆ has 12 and hence do not meet the octet rule (8 valence electrons only). 

### 3. ODD ELECTRON SPECIES: 

Pairs of electrons are found in the most stable compounds and complicated ions. There is a class of compounds in which the valence electrons in the valence shell have an odd number of electrons. Free radicals are the name for these molecules. 
One well-known example is nitrogen oxide (NO₂). Each oxygen atom contributes six valence electrons and the nitrogen atom contributes five for a total of seventeen. As the octet rule requires eight electrons around each atom, a molecule with an odd number of electrons must disobey the octet rule.

![Lonely Electrons](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/28JhojZUAlrbExO95bG3Ay/ce6245b6acc544f3ba46dc28ab07a4c9/NO2_Dot-56a12a2c3df78cf772680359.png)
[Source](https://www.thoughtco.com/exceptions-to-the-octet-rule-603993)

## CONCLUSION: 

- There are exceptions to the covalent bonding laws. 
- These exceptions relate to atoms with electrons that won't fit into the standard octet rule. 

### FAQs:  

__1. What elements can be an exception to the octet rule?__

There aren't enough electrons in hydrogen, beryllium, or boron to make an octet. There is only one valence electron in hydrogen, and there is only one site for it to make a connection with another atom. Beryllium only has two valence atoms and can only establish electron-pair bonds in two places. 

__2. What are the 3 exceptions to the octet rule?__

The octet rule is subject to three basic exceptions: Molecules containing an odd number of electrons, such as NO; SF₆ molecules in which one or more atoms have more than eight electrons; and. Molecules contain more atoms with less than eight electrons, like BCl₃. 

__3. Is NH3 an exception to the octet rule?__

Yes, of course, nitrogen contains 5 electrons in its outermost shell. It shares three electrons with each hydrogen atom and has one lone pair at the nitrogen atom, making it an excellent Lewis base. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __List of elements that are exceptions to the octet rule__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎  

## SOURCES: 
1. Exception of octet. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/exceptions-to-the-octet-rule/lesson/Exceptions-to-the-Octet-Rule-CHEM/. Accessed 26 Jan 2022.
2. Incomplete octet- https://www.thoughtco.com/exceptions-to-the-octet-rule-603993. Accessed 26 jan 2022.
3. Odd electron species- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/exceptions-to-the-octet-rule/. Accessed 26 jan 2022.


The octet rule is a bonding hypothesis that predicts the chemical structure of covalently bound compounds. 


Exceptions of the Octet Rule Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

When we were little kids 🧒, we all stared up at the night sky 🌃 with amazement 😮. The bright spots somehow gave a soothing relief, a calm. We fantasized about the stars and space, and we often slept 😴 counting stars. We had so many questions! We often need to view the world around us in new ways to comprehend things better. Hybridization is one such example where we need to expand our normal horizon of thinking.

![Hybridization](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2f32cP7aRB1PPhP8INSAo1/9c39819963b65be09885ecca569b0562/397423_423141_ans.png)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/what-is-meant-by-hybridisation-of-atomic-orbitals-describe-the-shapes-of-sp-displaystyle-sp2/)

### HYBRIDIZATION

When two atomic orbitals unite to produce a hybrid orbital in a structure, the energy of individual atoms' orbitals is redistributed to give orbitals of comparable energy. Hybridization is the term for this process. 

The atomic orbitals with equivalent energies are blended together during the hybridization process. It usually includes the merging of two 's' orbitals or 2 'p' orbitals or combining an 's' orbital with a 'p' orbital, as well as a's' orbital along with a 'd' orbital. Hybrid orbitals are the novel orbitals that result from this process. Hybrid orbitals are particularly valuable in describing atomic bonding characteristics and molecule geometry. 

### sp³ HYBRIDIZATION

A tetrahedral hybridization, or sp³, occurs whenever 1's' orbital and three 'p' orbitals corresponding to much the same shell of an atom combine to generate four new equivalent orbitals. sp³ hybrid orbitals are the new orbitals that have been generated. 

- The 3 p atomic orbitals are perpendicular at a 90-degree angle. The apparent HCH bond angle in the tetrahedral CH₄ compound is 109.5, as shown by the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. As a result, the methane molecules cannot be accurately described by a simple overlapping of carbon's 2s and 2p orbitals with every hydrogen atom's 1s orbitals. 
- These are aimed at the four corners of a conventional tetrahedron and form a 109° angle with each other. 
- The sp³ hybridization orbitals have a 109.280-degree angle between them. 
- Each sp³ hybridized orbital has a 25% s component and 75% p character. 

![sp3 hybridization](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5ySeaWs76aNBqREbcOyrXW/3d57cf5d4781bac6a58c5510b9d258d6/f-d_9782b8d61b4c527b0aa301411399f745015afda8be04856670ce6f87_IMAGE_TINY_IMAGE_TINY.1)
[Source](https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook-2.0/section/9.22/primary/lesson/hybrid-orbitals-sp3-chem/) 

## CONCLUSION

- The mingling of atomic orbitals in an atom to form a hybrid orbital is known as hybridization. 
- A tetrahedral hybridization, or sp³, occurs whenever 1 's' orbital and three 'p' orbitals corresponding to much the same shell of an atom combine to generate four new equivalent orbitals. 

### FAQs:

__1. What are sp² and sp³ in chemistry?__

One s and 2 p atomic orbitals are mixed in sp² hybridization, and one s and 3 p are mixed in sp³ hybridization. 

__2. What type of bond is sp³?__

Four equal σ bonds make up the sp³ molecule. Two s and three 2p orbitals unite to form four identical orbitals, usually known as sp³ hybrids, during hybridization. 

__3. What is hybridization in chemistry?__

In valence bond theory, orbital hybridization combines atomic orbitals to generate new hybrid orbitals. They have different energies, shapes, and other properties than the constituent atomic orbitals, and they are suited for electron pairing to form chemical bonds. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about Hybrid Orbitals - sp³! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎  

## SOURCES: 
1. Hybrid Orbitals - sp3. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/hybrid-orbitals-sp3/lesson/Hybrid-Orbitals-sp3-CHEM/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022. 
2. Sp3 Hybridization. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/sp3-hybridization/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022. 
3. Hybridization. https://byjus.com/jee/hybridization/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022.


Covalent bonds are formed when electrons hybridize. 

Hybrid Orbitals - sp³ Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

We all love a delicious piece of cake 🍰 every now and then, but do you know how we bake a cake? Starting with all the ingredients, we mix them in the required proportions, and then we bake the batter in the oven for a given period. And the result? A mouth-wateringly delicious cake 😋! 

In some ways or the other, hybridization is like baking a cake. We start with all the atomic orbitals we require, and the result is a hybrid orbital that will take place in bonding. Let's look at a few examples of these hybridized orbitals.

![Hybridization](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3X8dAforxUDMwkAchNYEJc/9008164aa36ddfe2a614205af9610103/hybridization.jpg)
[Source](https://www.askmattrab.com/notes/510-definition-and-characteristics-of-hybridization) 

### sp HYBRIDIZATION 

- Whenever one s and one p orbital in the same primary shell of the atom combine to generate 2 new equivalent orbitals, this is known as sp hybridization. sp hybridized orbitals are the new orbitals that develop. It produces 180-degree linear molecules. 
- 1 's' orbital and also 1 'p' orbital of comparable energy are mixed to form a new hybrid orbital termed as a sp hybridized orbital. 
- Diagonal hybridization is another name for sp hybridization. 
- Each sp hybridized orbital has the same proportion of s and p characters - 50 percent s and 50 percent p. 

![sp hybridization](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2mki5jRhzauWeuHNf7F4tG/f92ae5e6fb3080bc6d148cc0106d02d2/f-d_4933f6316463c04dc647c834bbeed6b5f095c1bf0851e053b3a31458_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1) 
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-chemistry-concepts-intermediate/section/9.23/) 

### sp² HYBRIDIZATION 

- Whenever 1 s and 2 p orbitals of the very same shell of an atom combine to generate three equivalent orbitals, this is known as sp² hybridization. Sp² hybrid orbitals are indeed the new orbitals that have been created. 
- Trigonal hybridization is another name for sp² hybridization. 
- It entails combining 1 s orbital with two 'p' orbitals of equivalent energy to form the sp² hybrid orbital. 
- A trigonal geometry blend of s and p orbitals is retained at 120 degrees. 
- All three hybrid orbitals stay in the same plane and form a 120° angle with one another. The hybrid orbitals have a 33.33 percent 's' character and a 66.66 percent 'p' component in each of them. 

![sp2 hybridization](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/28IdAQ0fXWB01sUpBFSdjy/ac51bcec53d40b895c3a8c816d303af3/f-d_152c96072628048160b455f3cf149eef8ce2b6ac49cd939ce17a7d6a_IMAGE_TINY_IMAGE_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-chemistry-concepts-intermediate/section/9.23/) 

A planar triangle form is seen in structures where the center atom is connected to three other atoms and is sp² hybridized. 

## CONCLUSION: 

- Hybridization of paired electrons allows them to engage in covalent bonding. 
- Diagonal hybridization is another name for sp hybridization. 
- Trigonal hybridization is another name for sp² hybridization. 

### FAQs:  

__1. How many orbitals are in sp?__

The sp set consists of two similar orbitals that are 180 degrees apart. The two electrons previously in the s orbital have been dispersed to the two half-filled sp orbitals. 

__2. What is sp sp² and sp³?__

One s and one p atomic orbital are mixed in sp hybridization, one s and 2 p atomic orbitals are mixed in sp² hybridization, and one s and 3 p atomic orbitals are mixed in sp³ hybridization.

__3.  What is the shape of sp orbitals?__

The word sp-hybridization refers to the mixing of one s- and one p-orbital. The Be atom, for instance, undergoes sp-hybridization in BeF₂. It has a linear shape, and the bond angle is 180 degrees. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about hybrid orbitals - sp and sp²! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎  

## SOURCES: 
1. Hybrid Orbitals - sp and sp2 https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/hybrid-orbitals-sp-and-sp2/lesson/Hybrid-Orbitals-sp-and-sp2-CHEM/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022 
2. Hybridization. https://byjus.com/jee/hybridization/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022 
3. Sp Hybridization. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/sp-hybridization/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022 


Only one p orbital coincides with the s orbital in sp hybridization. 


Hybrid orbitals - sp and sp² Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

It is critical for every one of us to live and spend time in a caring, secure, and stable environment. We all wish to feel like we fit, valued, and cherished, and we may get that feeling by expressing our emotions with others. The more people we share our feelings with, the more stable we get in our community. Likewise, molecules demonstrate their stability by a resonance structure that grows in proportion to the number of structures they contain.

### WHAT IS RESONANCE IN CHEMISTRY? 

The electrons and bonds of a molecule can be seen using Lewis dot structures. Yet, some compounds have many participating or "resonance" configurations since a single Lewis structure cannot capture all bonding configurations. In chemistry, resonance refers to the concept that electrons are delocalized or circulate easily within the molecule, allowing for the possibility of different configurations for a single molecule. Resonance structures are created when a chemical or molecule represents two or more separate hybrid configurations with different electron positions.

Creating a Lewis structure for every relevant resonance structure can be visualized; however, it is worth remembering that none of these structures can be seen in reality. That is, the molecule does not actually switch between different configurations; instead, the genuine structure is a close approximation of each one of them.

![Resonance](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5TGyUbTUbW1N95a2otwLxi/e21e7c743cb3850072f7d18ad82a7da7/Resonance.png)
[Source](https://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/353/Carey5th/Ch01/ch1-7.html)

__Note:__ When sketching resonance structures, keep in mind that only the electrons should be moved; the atoms must remain in the same place. The placing of opposite charges on certain atoms is sometimes used in resonance structures.

### An example for resonance structure can be:

Resonating structures of ozone (O₃)

The core oxygen atom of the ozone (O₃) molecule is individually connected with one oxygen atom and doubly bound to the other. Although this molecule has no net charge, the Lewis structures reveal a positive unit charge on the core oxygen and a negative unit charge on the singularly linked oxygen. The two ozone ( O3) resonance structures are seen below.

![Ozone-resonance-Lewis](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1PlSSbb0iMOtz0pmISBfBX/a0328e0c71de17ff488d747806753dbf/KSV_P2_CHM_C03_E01_223_S01.png)
[Source](https://www.doubtnut.com/question-answer-chemistry/write-two-resonance-structures-of-ozone-which-satisfy-the-octet-rule-644129073/hindi)

## CONCLUSION: 

- Resonance is a feature of a molecule that can be viewed as numerous structures with only minor differences in electron distribution.
- The net charge of resonance structures will be the same.
- The molecule of ozone has two resonating structures. 

### FAQs

__1. Does ozone have resonance?__

Yes, the element of ozone does process the property of resonance. 

__2. How many resonance structures can ozone form?__

Ozone can form a total of two resonating structures. 

__3. What is the concept of resonance?__

In VBT (Valence Bond Theory), resonance, also known as mesomerism, is a process of describing bonding in specific molecules by combining multiple attributing structures, also recognized as resonance structures, into a resonance hybrid.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Resonance__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Resonance: https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/resonance-structures-can-be-drawn-for-ozo-class-11-chemistry-cbse-5fd8cb4b609c0e2b76a2ac4b. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.
2. Resonance: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry). Accessed 24Feb 2022. 


Resonance in chemistry is a phenomenon to prove the stability of certain elements 


Resonance Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 
Smoke inhalation is among the most common and serious problems faced by firefighters. If left untreated, it could be fatal and life-threatening. But why is it so bad? It's due to gases like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the smoke. These gases enter the bloodstream through inhalation and could cause catastrophic damage to the brain and other organs. Carbon monoxide is the most lethal among all gases due to its high affinity for combining with hemoglobin.

![ Carbon Monoxide Poisoning](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/VqFdJiXrFhi2hHSd5fRhu/5cc1a91886b3fc5e6fc1517eee860e81/Forensic-Yard-6.jpg)
[Source](https://forensicyard.com/carbon-monoxide-poisoning/)

### CARBON MONOXIDE:

Carbon monoxide is the most basic oxocarbon or oxide of carbon. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, slightly lighter-than-air gas. Even though it is created in the metabolism and has certain biological activities, it is poisonous to humans and animals at greater doses.

![Carbon monoxide](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4yzsQtE5akFrpbcheNuPSi/7bd7a139f690ac9fa2652b1dbdd30f3f/main-qimg-273e4afb64df244f061ca4ef77e3c0c9.webp)
[Source](https://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-not-a-double-bond-between-carbon-and-oxygen-in-carbon-monoxide)

### CARBON MONOXIDE BOND:

One carbon and one oxygen atom are joined by a triple bond in carbon monoxide. The carbon and oxygen atoms are separated by 112.8 pm, indicating the presence of a triple bond.

CO has the strongest chemical bond observed, with a bond dissociation energy of 1072 kJ/mol. CO has three resonance configurations. However, the triple bond structure is the closest to the true electron density distribution in the compound.

### RESONANCE STRUCTURE:

Three distinct resonance structures stabilize carbon monoxide. The essential resonance arrangement is the first one.

![Carbon Monoxide esonance structures](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7CpHEQ5Xyj4SArGavmKoKw/5a51fcc23b080f67a1a62a7ce5d6c981/carbon-monoxide-2.svg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/carbon-oxides-and-carbonates/)

### BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

CO is a signaling molecule that is naturally generated by the human body. A range of illnesses, particularly hypertension and heart failure, have been related to anomalies in its metabolism. 
CO is prevalent in minor concentrations in the atmosphere, primarily due to fossil fuel combustion and fires. It is eventually converted to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by natural mechanisms.

## CONCLUSION

- One carbon atom and one oxygen atom make up a carbon monoxide molecule.
- CO has three resonance configurations; however, the triple bond structure is the closest to the true electron density distribution in the compound.
- CO is prevalent in minor concentrations in the atmosphere, primarily as a consequence of fossil fuel combustion and fires.

### FAQs:

__1. What kind of bond is CO?__

In carbon monoxide, carbon and oxygen first form a double covalent bond. At first, oxygen and carbon share their two valence electrons each. This makes a double covalent bond. By doing so, oxygen becomes stable. But carbon is still not stabilized. Hence, oxygen now shares one of its lone pairs with carbon, leading to a coordinate covalent or dative bond. Once formed, a dative bond acts just like a normal covalent bond. Hence, carbon monoxide has a triple covalent bond.

__2. What is the meaning of CO bond?__

Carbon monoxide has a triple covalent bond, in which two are normal covalent bonds and one is a dative bond. A dative bond itself is a coordinate covalent bond. Here oxygen shares its lone pair of electrons with carbon, making a coordinate covalent bond. Once formed, this bond acts like a normal covalent bond.

__3.  How many bonds are there in CO?__

Carbon Monoxide has a triple covalent bond. Two are normal covalent bonds, and one is a coordinate bond.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Carbon Monoxide Bond__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:
1. Coordinate Covalent bond.  https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/coordinate-covalent-bond/lesson/Coordinate-Covalent-Bonds-CHEM/?referrer=concept_details. Accessed on 23rd Jan 2022.
2. Properties Of Carbon Monoxide. https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/carbon-monoxide-has-a-bond-between-c-and-o-a-class-12-chemistry-cbse-5f625c5d01faef2daa4dfc56. Accessed on 23rd Jan 2022


One of the most basic carbon oxides is carbon monoxide, which is one carbon atom coupled to one oxygen atom.


Carbon Monoxide Bonds Study Guide

## Introduction 

You probably already know what an electron is; they’re the negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus. But do you know what electron configuration is?

There is a standard notation that is followed to represent the number of electrons distributed in a particular element at an atomic orbital, which helps determine the particular sequence of electrons contained in the atomic subshell. This electron distribution configuration is done either through the electron dot pictures or Lewis structures.

### What is an electron dot structure?

An electron dot structure, also known as a Lewis dot formula, is a representation of the electrons found in the valence shell of an atom. Drawing electron dot diagrams is possible if you know the molecular formula of the compound. They help define the nature of the bond and the position of atoms which are connected in molecules. This structure showing electron distribution is in honor of the American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis. 

Lewis structures help you understand the chemical bonding between atoms in a molecule. They also help determine the lone pairs present in an atom. Lewis established a base as an electron pair donor and an acid as an electron pair acceptor. Lewis dot structure is often thought of as 'electron bookkeeping.' 

### How to draw an electron dot diagram 

For a chemistry student attempting to understand electron configurations for the first time, Lewis structures might be a little confusing. But once you understand the concept, it’s a pretty straightforward method of learning. Let’s go over the steps of how to make one.

![Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/54jNgDxhXJoMPnYEVx29lb/b1c286b70d68b405c9827245f523285b/CNX_Chem_07_03_3rowLewis1.jpg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-mcc-introductorychemistry/chapter/lewis-electron-dot-diagrams/#:~:text=A%20Lewis%20electron%20dot%20diagram,valence%20electrons%20in%20the%20atom.) 

__Step 1: Figure out the total number of valence electrons__

Add the number of valence electrons present in the molecule.

__Step 2: Find how to satisfy the outermost shell of the atom__

The number of electrons in the valence shell of an atom largely determines its reactivity and tendency to form bonds with other atoms. Atoms tend to prefer to have 8 electrons in this shell, a phenomenon labeled as the octet rule.

__Step 3: Figure out the number of bonds__

A covalent bond is formed when two atoms in a molecule share an electron. Determine the number of electrons you have and the number of electrons you need, then subtract the former from the latter. The bond formed requires two electrons; therefore, the number of bonds is exactly half the number of electrons needed. 

__Step 4: Select a central atom__

The least electronegative atom is the central atom of a molecule. You can determine this value using the periodic table.

__Step 5: Draw the structure by placing electrons around the center__

After selecting the central atom, join the other atoms in the molecule to it using a straight line, which represents a bond. The central atom can have up to four other atoms connected to it. Follow the octet rule and finish filling the outer shell. If there aren't ample electrons to complete the octet, then through trial and error, you need to figure out the right skeletal structure. If there are any bonds left, then create double bonds with lone pairs on outside atoms. 

![Lewis Structures](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3cXxeZLTtfCj9RHzOTZAJv/645e4497ace3c0847980b34105936bfb/1e0de53265d4b2a9a5972894ac92e3e0.jpg)
[Source](https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_General_Chemistry_(Petrucci_et_al.)/10%3A_Chemical_Bonding_I%3A_Basic_Concepts/10.4%3A_Writing_Lewis_Structures)

## CONCLUSION: 

- Electron dot structures represent the nature of a bond between two atoms and their positions in a molecule.
- Lewis dot structures are often thought of as 'electron bookkeeping'. 

### FAQs: 

__1. What are electron dot diagrams?__ 

The electron dot diagram is a representation of the valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element.

__2. How do you draw an electron dot diagram for an element?__ 

- Find the total number of valence electrons
- Find the number of electrons that would satisfy the outermost shell
- Determine the number of bonds
- Choose a central atom
- Draw skeletal structure and place electrons

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __How To Draw Electron Dot Structures__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES: 

1. Lewis Dot Structure: https://byjus.com/chemistry/lewis-dot-structures/. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
2. How to Draw a Lewis Structure: https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-draw-a-lewis-structure-603983. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
3. Electron Dot Diagram: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/electron-dot-diagrams/?difficulty=all&by=all&modalityGroupName=video&filterReferrer=search. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.


Electron distribution helps in determining the number of electrons present in the element's atomic orbital. And this could be easily determined with the help of Lewis dot structure video. So, how do we draw electron dot structures? 


Electron Dot Structure Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Have you ever wondered what keeps two elements bonded together? The periodic table will always fascinate you with all the different elements which form different bonds with each element. One of the common bonds is the covalent bond. 

A covalent bond can be defined as the atomic linkage which forms due to the result of sharing two electrons from each atom. The covalent bond has three types: single covalent bond, double covalent bond, and triple covalent bond. 

Let us learn more about single covalent bonds! 

![Covalent bond ](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4pW7zplY9hWk9UddoRh64T/6dcd739a3c6f1661e845e0184e3caf63/Water-2D-dot-cross.png)
[Source](https://www.wikiwand.com/simple/Covalent_bond)

### WHAT IS A SINGLE COVALENT BOND? WHY DOES IT FORM?

A single covalent bond can be defined as the result of two atoms sharing two electrons to form a chemical bond. Hence, it can be said that a covalent bond in which only one pair of electrons is shared is known as a single covalent bond. With sharing a bond, a molecule or compound is formed in a new chemical reaction. It increases the intermolecular force as it shares one electron from each atom. There is only one line between the two atoms. 

A covalent bond forms when the discrepancy between the electronegativities of two atoms is too small for an electron transfer to occur to form ions. It is mainly formed between two nonmetals. Neither of the atoms involved in a covalent bond has enough energy to tear an electron out from the other atom, like the same in ionic bonds. But the atoms still want to form a full octet; hence, they share their valence electrons, and covalent bonds are formed.

### HOW IS A SINGLE COVALENT BOND FORMED?

In a single covalent bond, each atom donates with one electron. So if two non-metals need to form a bond, they need to send one electron from each side and form a bond. Many atoms donate to form a stable compound, and the bond also helps to achieve the duplet, octet, etc. 
For example, in methane, there are clearly four single covalent bonds. Each of which stands for a pair of electrons. Single covalent bonds can be represented by single lines. 

![Single bond](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/12sLKtF8k1xTwwefjBNGB9/30e452528f1abca09d9ad6fd60515430/Methane-2D-square.png)
[Source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_bond)

### FAQs 

__1. What do single covalent bonds share?__

Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons to form the bond. 

__2. Why are single covalent bonds the longest?__

Single bonds are the longest as interatomic attraction is greater in the two other types. The expansion in component bonds is the reason for this attraction increase as more electrons are shared between the bonded atoms.

__3. What elements can only have a single bond?__

The hydrogen atom and the halogen atoms form only one covalent bond with the other atoms as a steady neutral compound. However, the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms can bond to more than one atom.

__4. What is the amount of force required to break a single covalent bond?__

The specific energy of a covalent bond is 1 electron-Volt, and the typical distance over which the bond stays is normally 0.1 nanometer. Thus, the force required to break a covalent bond is on the order of 1 eV/0.1 nm ~ 1600 pN.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Covalent Bonds__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES
1. Single Covalent Bonds: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/single-covalent-bonds/lesson/Single-Covalent-Bonds-CHEM/?referrer=concept_details.Accessed 7th March 2022. 
2. Covalent Bond: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/covalent-bond. Accessed 7th March 2022.


A single covalent bond can be defined as a chemical bond in which two atoms share two electrons to form one bond.

Single Covalent Bonds Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Matter is composed of small building units known as atoms. An atom is composed of a nucleus and electrons. Electrons are responsible for forming bonds with other atoms in order to create a molecule of a compound. Let us find out how a bond is formed.

There are two types of bonds that are formed between two atoms of similar or dissimilar elements. An electrovalent bond is formed when an atom completely loses or gains an electron(s), while the mechanism of a covalent bond is slightly different. There are numerous examples of chemical bonds in everyday life.

![Covalent-Bonding](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4t12BwK92v4EuqV8geQuJA/340172e5ccbae8560ff63f6b1d79b0b8/Covalent-Bonding.jpeg)
[Source](https://thechemistrynotes.com/covalent-bond/)

### WHAT IS A COVALENT BOND?

Some atoms of elements have very high ionization energy, due to which they are unable to give up their electrons. While others may have low electron affinity, preventing them from gaining an electron. The only other alternative is to share electrons so that there is no deficit or gain of electrons in either. The subsequent bond formed in such an arrangement is known as a covalent bond.

### WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF A COVALENT BOND?

One needs to remember that a covalent bond does not participate in the creation of new electrons; instead, the existing ones are shared between the atoms. Since there are no free electrons, elements or compounds with covalent bonds are unable to conduct electricity. But, covalent bonds are extremely powerful, which is why they make the strongest elements or compounds that are difficult to separate.

![Covalent bonding](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5KpafN1SVSU3hc0erE1CvH/5619214fe16e063c5a5eab87e6ecace9/bf27a42f-971b-4e6f-bef6-fbb84ed6ea28_640w.jpeg)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-ar/content/posts/chemical-bonding-and-molecular-structure/real-life-applications-31642/)

### HOW ARE COVALENT BONDS APPLIED IN OUR DAILY LIVES?

The two atoms of oxygen are held together by a covalent bond to form O2, and we are all aware of how essential oxygen is in our lives. Not only does it help in respiration, but it is also responsible for transforming food into energy. Water is another example of a covalent bond and is a basic necessity of our lives. Moreover, the carbohydrate we take in to provide our body with energy to carry out daily activities is also formed from a covalent bond. These are some of the examples of covalent bonds in everyday life. 

### FAQs

__1. What are five examples of covalent bonds?__

Five examples of covalent bonds are hydrogen (H₂), oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), water (H₂O), and methane(CH₄).

__2. What is a covalent bond?__

A chemical bond involving the sharing of electron pairs between atoms is known as a covalent bond. The electrons are drawn to their nuclei by electrostatic attraction. Atoms share electrons to attain the stable electronic configuration following the octet rule.

__3. What are the different types of covalent bonds?__

According to the number of electron pairs that are being shared, there are three kinds of covalent bonds. They are single covalent bond, double covalent bond, and triple covalent bond. There are three types of covalent bonds according to the polarity of the bond. They are polar covalent bond, nonpolar covalent bond, and coordinate covalent bond.

__4. How are covalent compounds used in the human body?__

Covalent bonds can generally be seen in carbon-based molecules like DNA and other proteins. They are also found in inorganic molecules like H₂O, O₂, etc. These are utilized in the human body for different purposes. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Covalent Bonds in Chemistry__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES

1. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure: https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-ar/content/posts/chemical-bonding-and-molecular-structure/real-life-applications-31642/. Accessed 7th March 2022.
2. Levels of Sharing: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/single-covalent-bonds/rwa/Levels-of-Sharing/. Accessed 7th March 2022.


Different compounds are formed by creating covalent bonds, which may seem complicated, but are easily explained in this study guide with the help of real-life examples of covalent bonds. 


Covalent Bonds Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION: 

Football is a team sport. Imagine what will happen if a player doesn’t pass the ball to any other player on the team. The strength of a team resides in how well its players can cooperate and coordinate with one another. No matter how good an individual player is, the team's stability depends on how well the ball is coordinated between different players. A similar case is with coordination bonds. To achieve stability in a molecule, some atoms share their lone pair of electrons with some other element.

![Coordinate covalent bond](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/60QqqORaraVMITseEJw5As/10e22681e4e4077253243c1031160fb2/tumblr_inline_p291k1X69D1vsm738_640.png)
[Source](https://as-studypeach.tumblr.com/post/169471791509/covalent-bonds-sharing-is-caring)

### WHAT IS A COORDINATE BOND?

A co-ordinate bond is an alternative covalent link produced when an electron pair from a single atom is shared. The very same atom provides both shared electrons. It's also known as a dative bond. Coordinate covalent bonds are commonly produced in interactions involving two non-metals, such as hydrogen atoms, or when metal ions and ligands create bonds.

### CHARACTERISTICS OF COORDINATE BOND:

- The atom that exchanges an electron pair with itself is the donor in this sort of bonding.
- A receptor or acceptor is another atom that receives those shared pairs of electrons.
- An arrow pointing from the donor atom to the acceptor symbolizes the bond.
- Each atom achieves stability when the electron suffering is shared.
- The Lewis theory is based on this form of bonding.
- Studying co-ordinate covalent bonds will aid in the right construction of complex organic compounds.

### COORDINATE BOND EXAMPLE:

### Ex.1 FORMATION OF AMMONIUM ION

The electron pair of the nitrogen atom in ammonia is donated to the vacant orbital of the H+ ion, making nitrogen the donor and H+ the acceptor, and a co-ordinate bond is created.

![Ammonium-ion-formation](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2bsbiLrc3ZmKUVd8bzavUM/697f5ae67b3619883d2795fb9e0d25b1/oCHHrs7XSUuHb3PUOA9Q_ammonium-ion-formation.gif)
[Source](https://socratic.org/questions/with-the-assumption-that-the-ammonium-ion-is-formed-from-the-reaction-between-am)

### Ex.2 FORMATION OF HYDRONIUM ION

In water, an oxygen atom gives one electron pair to the empty orbital of the H+ ion, forming a dative connection. The donor atom is oxygen, while the acceptor atom is H+.

![FORMATION OF HYDRONIUM ION](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2M2fZYsZlOkXx5O2niUd4p/53ca7b9cc184c6cae829c0f10c8dbe6e/1923104_1927074_ans_c6ab184b8a64471a8ff1c13cee095d40.PNG)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/1927074/)

## CONCLUSION:

- Coordinate covalent bonds can develop when one atom contributes a lone pair of electrons to the bonding.
- Coordinate covalent bonds are commonly produced in interactions involving two non-metals.

### FAQs: 

__1. How many bonds are in carbon monoxide?__

Carbon Monoxide molecule contains a triple bond, two of which are covalent bonds, and one is a coordinate covalent bond. 

__2. What type of bond is CaO?__

CaO has an ionic bond. The ionic bond is formed when one of the elements is metallic and the other is non-metallic. The cation is formed by Ca², and the anion is formed by O²-.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Coordinate Covalent Bond__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:
1. Coordinate Covalent bond. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/coordinate-covalent-bond/lesson/Coordinate-Covalent-Bonds-CHEM/?referrer=concept_details. Accessed on 16 Feb 2022.
2. Co-ordinate Bond. https://byjus.com/jee/co-ordinate-bond/. Accessed on 16 Feb 2022.


A co-ordinate bond is an alternative covalent link produced when an electron pair from a single atom is shared.


 Coordinate Covalent Bond Study Guide

TL;DR How To Draw Electron Dot Structure

TL;DR Carbon Monoxide Bonds

TL;DR Single Covalent Bond

TL;DR Resonance

TL;DR Covalent Bond

TL;DR Exceptions To The Octet Rule

Let's quickly run through coordinate covalent bonds: Bonds that have a shared pair of electrons that are derived from the same atom!