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Hydrogen

## INTRODUCTION

"It’s hard to imagine a life without hydrocarbons": this statement may sound a bit exaggerated, but believe it or not, it’s not. Petroleum and natural gas are mostly made up of hydrocarbons. They're used as fuels, lubricants, and raw materials for polymers, fibres, solvents, explosives, and chemical products. Our lives are surrounded by hydrocarbons. But before we discuss the properties and uses of hydrocarbons in daily life, let’s try to understand what exactly a hydrocarbon is.

### WHAT IS A HYDROCARBON?

Hydrocarbons are a group of organic chemicals made up only of the atoms carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). The carbon atoms bind together to create the compound's structure, and the hydrogen atoms adhere to it in various ways.

![HYDROCARBON](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2gSUfrPDxG6IRtoZpdAeKe/12ea78b30abc3a2696298424de144ec7/ad9a0d58-b8ac-4097-ab23-b4262a468027_640w.jpeg)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-af/content/posts/hydrocarbons/real-life-applications-33992/)

Based on the amount of bonds between their carbon atoms, hydrocarbons are divided into two categories: saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

### TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS:

### SATURATED HYDROCARBONS:

Single bonds hold carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen atoms together in these molecules. These single-bonded hydrocarbons are the simplest. There are no double or triple bonds in these hydrocarbons.

### UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON:

A double, or triple bond connecting carbon-carbon atoms make up these molecules. The unsaturated hydrocarbons are the alkenes with one double bond and the alkynes with one triple bond in its carbon chain.

### PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS:

- The size of hydrocarbons varies widely, affecting qualities like melting and boiling temperatures. 
- Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature. 
- They are nonpolar and therefore are not soluble in water in most cases.

### USES OF HYDROCARBONS:

- Fuels made of hydrocarbons are commonly utilized. LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) and CNG (compressed natural gas) are examples.
- They're employed in the production of polymers like polyethylene and polystyrene.
- As a precursor material, these organic compounds are used to produce pharmaceuticals and colors.
- They are used as lubricants and grease.

## CONCLUSION: 

- Hydrocarbons are a group of organic chemicals made up only of the atoms carbon and hydrogen.
- Based on the amount of bonds between their carbon atoms, hydrocarbons are divided into two categories: saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
- Hydrocarbons are used for several purposes, the most essential as fuel.

### FAQs: 

__1. What property do all hydrocarbons have?__

Hydrocarbons are nonpolar, meaning that their particles do not have oppositely charged ends. As a result, they are not soluble in water, even though water is a polar substance. Hydrocarbons, in general, tend to repel water.

__2. What determines the chemical and physical properties of hydrocarbons?__

The size of the particles influences the melting and boiling temperatures of hydrocarbon molecules. As a result, certain hydrocarbons are gases at room temperature, while some are liquids or solids.

__3.  What are the 4 types of hydrocarbons?__

One or more core carbon atoms are surrounded by hydrogen atoms in a branching or chain-like configuration in hydrocarbon molecules. Hydrocarbons are divided into four categories: Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Hydrocarbons__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Hydrocarbon. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/hydrocarbon/lesson/Hydrocarbons-MS-PS/. Accessed 22 Feb 2022. 
2. Hydrocarbons. https://www.vedantu.com/iit-jee/hydrocarbons. Accessed 22 Feb 2022. 
3. Hydrocarbons. https://byjus.com/jee/hydrocarbons/. Accessed 22 Feb 2022. 


Hydrocarbons are a group of organic chemicals made up only of the atoms carbon and hydrogen.


Hydrocarbons Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION: 

You may have observed that chip and snack packages have more air in them. Because oxygen is an extremely reactive gas, it might oxidize the fats or oils in the snack, causing it to deteriorate. When fats or oils are oxidized for a long time, they develop an unpalatable taste and odour. Nitrogen gas, in fact, is utilized in the packing of chips and other snacks to keep food from deteriorating. Wondering what oxidation is? Let's find out. 

![potato-chips-bag](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4axiZQ749nqp5GBiP8Kmt8/da2eb5184de7e1609286a0ba05ebdc77/potato-chips-bag.jpg)
[Source](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1h9iMQjw4RKGpIkZNLNdWX8BFBjfJcT6seh2PBLR_NrM/edit#)

### WHAT IS OXIDATION?
The removal of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion during a process is known as oxidation.  The oxidation number (also called the oxidation state) is the total number of electrons that an atom either gains or loses in order to form a chemical bond with another atom. The opposite process is called reduction. When the oxidation number of a compound, atom, or ion increases, it is said to be oxidized. 

### HISTORICAL DEFINITION OF OXIDATION
When oxygen was added to a chemical, it was referred to as oxidation because oxygen gas was the very first recognized oxidizing agent. However, adding oxygen to a substance usually results in electron losses and a rise in oxidation state; the concept of oxidation has been broadened to cover different chemical processes. 

![Oxidation](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5SOzq5OIjdBOAnn45dMaoB/8300cc889b23730b908ddb278502b98c/Oxidation.jpg)
[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/what-is-oxidation-definition-and-examples/)

### OXIDATION OF ALKANES:
- An alkane can be oxidized to the equivalent alkene when exposed to high temperatures in the presence of an adequate catalyst.
![Oxidation of alkanes](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3zP2zi9VUe6As2b71zrWPy/8313fc7c953558b0514d634a276a227b/oxlevel-2.gif)
[Source](http://ursula.chem.yale.edu/~chem220/chem220js/STUDYAIDS/oxidationlevel/Oxidationlevel.html)
- The most reduced form of a hydrocarbon is the alkane, whereas the most oxidized form is the alkyne.

### OXIDATION OF HYDROCARBONS: 
Now let’s discuss the oxidation of hydrocarbons in respect of the addition of oxygen to the compound:

- In organic chemistry, oxidation reactions include the introduction of oxygen to a molecule, which modifies the functional group of that chemical.
- When alcohol is oxidized, it produces either an aldehyde or a ketone.
- The oxidation result is a ketone instead of an aldehyde whenever the alcohol to be oxidized is a secondary alcohol. For instance, the oxidation of 2-propanol gives propanone.

![Propan-2-ol to propanone](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7oIFvQqeSCY2xmm5zGQ5CY/f76f5f99086ca6c89c318d537ff390d4/1200px-Propan-2-ol_to_propanone.png)
[Source](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Propan-2-ol_to_propanone.png)

After you've mastered oxidations and reductions, you'll find that some compounds' reactions can occur in a logical order.

- The alkane could be converted to primary alcohol by oxidation.
- The alcohol could be converted to an aldehyde by oxidation.
- The aldehyde could be converted to a carboxylic acid by oxidation.

This is what we call an oxidation ladder.

![Oxidation Ladder](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1VNnRlgkD3PDz1QlZcF8E3/6dae5a62c77282734d39c6b845edf043/1-oxidation-ladder-example-of-going-from-less-oxidized-carbon-alkane-to-more-oxidized-carbon-primary-alcohol-aldehyde-carbox.gif)
[Source](https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2011/08/08/oxidation-ladders/)

## CONCLUSION: 
- The removal of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion during a process is known as oxidation.
- In organic chemistry, oxidation reactions include the introduction of oxygen to a molecule, which modifies the functional group of that chemical.
- The oxidation result is a ketone instead of an aldehyde whenever the alcohol to be oxidized is a secondary alcohol.

### FAQs: 

__1. What is the oxidation of propanol?__

Propanol is oxidized to the aldehyde propanal by sodium dichromate acidified in dilute sulphuric acid. The color shift of the dichromate solution as it has been reduced from orange to green indicates the oxidation of the alcohol to an aldehyde.

__2. Can 2-propanol be oxidized to a carboxylic acid?__

A carboxylic acid can be formed when propanol (primary alcohol) is oxidized. Different alcohol kinds react to oxidation in different ways. 2-propanol is a secondary alcohol that may be converted to a ketone by oxidation but not carboxylic acid.

__3.  Which compound is formed by the oxidation of 2-propanol?__

The oxidation result is a ketone instead of an aldehyde when the alcohol to be oxidized is secondary. Propanone is produced by oxidizing the most basic secondary alcohol, 2-propanol.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Oxidation Reactions__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Oxidation Reactions. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/oxidation-reactions/lesson/Oxidation-Reactions-CHEM/. Accessed 1 Feb 2021.
2. Oxidation Definition and Example in Chemistry. https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-oxidation-in-chemistry-605456. Accessed 1 Feb 2021.
3. Oxidation: Definition, Classification, and Examples. https://researchtweet.com/oxidation-definition-classification-examples/. Accessed 1 Feb 2021.


The removal of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion during a process is known as oxidation.


Oxidation Reactions Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION: 

![Wet-Chemical-Extinguisher](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/wy9vKorcjoV5v2rKwGYrQ/a0f169b7d3ff254dfb4f724ea38674ff/Wet-Chemical-Extinguisher-Leeds-1-scaled.jpg)
[Source](https://www.hrfireandsafety.co.uk/fire-extinguishers/wet-chemical-extinguishers/)

Early in their training, firefighters learn that eliminating one or more legs of the typical "fire triangle" (oxygen, heat, and fuel) will extinguish a fire. They learn to employ various materials (e.g., dry chemical, foam, water) that accomplish one or more of the roles of eliminating heat, oxygen, or fuel from a fire via hose lines and portable fire extinguishers. Saponification (hydrolysis of esters in the presence of alkalis) processes transforming blazing fats to soap, which is non-combustible, in wet chemical fire extinguishers used to put out flames involving fats and oils. Now you must be wondering what an ester is. Let’s talk about that in detail.

### DEFINING ESTER
An ester is an organic chemical that is a carboxylic acid derivative in which the hydroxyl group's hydrogen atom has been substituted with an alkyl group.

Esters are carboxylic acids that have had the hydroxyl (OH) group replaced with an alkoxy (R-O) group. The condensation of a carboxylic acid with alcohol is a typical way to make them.

![ester](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1q7QbWXu7DrsAu8Gq4zlYz/1422104e443a2bd5c0a2ce07614e8058/ester.png) 
[Source](https://www.britannica.com/science/ester-chemical-compound)

A generic ester structure is provided below: 

![ester-RCOOR’](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5kfXzyTECNE0q3VHa3bKRi/27de37586346ebfb33f22fc5f7de9dfa/ester-general.svg) 
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/esters/)

### NOMENCLATURE: 
Individuals unfamiliar with organic chemistry may be confused by the nomenclature of esters since the name is written in the opposite order as the formula. The ethyl group is listed just before the name in the scenario of ethyl ethanoate, for example. Ethanoic acid is the source of the word "ethanoate." 

While esters' IUPAC designations are derived from the parent alcohol and acid, many common esters are referred to by their common names. Ethanoate is known as acetate, methanoate is known as formate, propanoate is known as propionate, and butanoate is known as butyrate. 

### PROPERTIES AND ESTER EXAMPLE: 

- Low molecular weight carboxylic acid esters are colorless, effervescent liquids with appealing aromas that are very marginally soluble in water.  
- Many are accountable for the aroma and flavor of flowers and fruits; for instance, bananas contain isopentyl acetate, wintergreen has methyl salicylate, and pineapples have ethyl butyrate.  

![methyl salicylate and while propyl](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/C2NwP2hbqMXLVqvQurhx6/403f0ed03b4c1e705722b7e36573684c/f-d_6f676cf2a87795b2a2ff487d940af0661043bbba07d471f81a70aede_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/esters/lesson/Esters-CHEM/)

- Artificial flavors, perfumes, and cosmetics include these and other volatile esters with distinct odors.  
- Lacquer thinner, paints, and varnishes employ volatile esters as solvents; enormous volumes of ethyl acetate and butyl acetate are commercially manufactured for this reason.  
- Animals and plants produce waxes that are esters of long-chain carboxylic acids and long-chain alcohols. Fats and oils are glycerol esters of long-chain carboxylic acids. 

## CONCLUSION:

- An ester is an organic chemical that is a carboxylic acid derivative in which the hydroxyl group's hydrogen atom has been substituted with an alkyl group. 
- Esters' IUPAC designations are derived from the parent alcohol and acid. 
- Many are accountable for the aroma and flavor of flowers and fruits. 

### FAQs:  

__1. What is a common ester?__ 

The most prevalent esters are those made from carboxylic acids. 

__2. What are ester products?__

The scent of numerous fruits, including apples, pears, bananas, pineapples, and strawberries, is due to esters. Artificial flavors, perfumes, and cosmetics include these and other volatile esters with distinct odors. 

__3.  How do you name ester examples?__

Determine and name the alkyl group (R') that has taken the place of the hydroxyl group's hydrogen. The is the first component of ester. 
Replace the word's ending from –oic acid to –oate for the carboxylic acid part of the molecule (R-COO). The second component of the ester name would be this. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Esters__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎  

## SOURCES: 
1. Ester general formula. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/esters/lesson/Esters-CHEM/. Accessed 26 Jan 2022.
2. Nomenclature. https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-ester-605106. Accessed 26 Jan 2022.
3. Ester. https://www.britannica.com/science/ester-chemical-compound. Accessed 26 Jan 2022.


Esters are found in fats and oils. It is an organic chemical that is a carboxylic acid derivative.

Esters Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

We have heard of medical doctors who administer anaesthesia to help manage pain during surgery. The main ingredient in anaesthesia is diethyl ether. Yes, you read that right! It's diethyl ether, which belongs to the family of ethers. The discovery of ether allowed physicians to use more refined techniques of surgery and medications. After the invention of safer, more effective inhalation anaesthetics, the usage of ether and chloroform fell, and they are no longer used in surgery.

![Anesthesia](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4pj5Aw3GY0128PKkJAWbfg/0e00ffd5828cb156e981832a5e05b6e6/w0615e16207252200938.jpg)
[Source](https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/what-you-should-know-about-anesthesia)

### WHAT IS ETHER?

Ethers are a group of organic compounds in which an oxygen atom is bonded with an alkyl or aryl group. It is represented by the general Ethers formula:

![Ether](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7gowoExTyAXhk1Y9ELXxNb/8eb06828671e37cec55e39e4ca3b63f8/Ether-_general_.png)
[Source](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ether)

The R in this formula represents the hydrocarbon group. It can be the same as R' or different.

### NOMENCLATURE OF ETHERS:

There are a set of rules to follow before naming an ether. 

- Firstly, you must select the longest carbon chain as a base, giving it its base name.
- Secondly, you should change the name of your hydrocarbon group ending with 'yl' to 'oxy.' Now, for example, butyl becomes butoxy and methyl becomes methoxy.
- Now the second name comes in front of the base name.

![Ether](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/L6tbBhrpvXbzdRUFNKxOO/9c6f319dd4fc640a799e2599aa25fba5/f-d_132153a7abe950e836c4fca5fc497bddef56a343cc0ac6535ce0a5f2_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/ethers/lesson/Ethers-CHEM/)

### PROPERTIES AND USES OF ETHERS: 

- Ethers are colorless, pleasant-smelling liquids at room temperature. 
- Ethers have lower boiling temperatures and are less dense than alcohols. 
- They are also less soluble in water. 
- Because they are generally inert, they can be used as solvents for fats, oils, waxes, and fragrances.
- Dipole moments of two C-O atoms do not cancel each other, which is why they possess a small net dipole.
- Ethers are also useful in medicine and pharmaceuticals, particularly as anesthetics.
- A methyl ether of morphine is codeine, a powerful pain reliever.
- Ethyl ether is a versatile solvent that may be used for the extraction process and several chemical processes. 
- In cold weather, it's also utilized as a volatile starter liquid for diesel and gasoline engines.

![Ether-Compounds-properties-ethers](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3KMUB4K9nkewh7YIrpcDUd/9594237627d8bf1d7cac9d34478f623d/Ether-Compounds-properties-ethers.jpg)
[Source](https://www.britannica.com/science/ether-chemical-compound)

## CONCLUSION

- Ethers are a group of organic compounds in which an oxygen atom is bonded with two alkyl or aryl groups. 
- The general Ethers formula is R-O-R'. Here R represents the hydrocarbon group, and R' can be the same or different hydrocarbon group.

### FAQs:

__1. What is the general formula of ethers?__

The general representation of ether is R-O-R', where R represents hydrocarbon group and R' can be the same or different hydrocarbon group.

__2. What is the formula of ether and ester?__

- The general formula of ether is R-O-R'
- The general formula of the ester is R-COO-R'

Here, R represents the hydrocarbon group, and R' can be the same or different hydrocarbon group.

__3. What are ethers' examples?__

Some examples of others are:

- Dimethyl ether, represented as CH₃ – O –  CH₃
- Ethyl methyl ether, represented as CH₃ – O – CH₂ – CH₃

__4. How do you write ethers?__

There are rules to follow before naming an ether in chemistry. The rules are:

- Firstly, you must select the longest carbon chain as a base, giving it its base name.
- Secondly, you should change the name of your hydrocarbon group ending with 'yl' to 'oxy.' Now, for example, butyl becomes butoxy and methyl becomes methoxy.
- Now the second name comes in front of the base name. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Ethers__ formula! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:

1. Ethers. https://byjus.com/jee/ethers/, Accessed on 26th Jan 2022.
2. Ethers. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/ethers/lesson/Ethers-CHEM/, Accessed on 26th Jan 2022.


Any organic molecule with an oxygen atom linked to two alkyl or aryl groups is known as ether.


Ethers Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION: 
Have you ever wondered how a carton of milk can go on without spoiling for a few days? Or how about a loaf of bread that stays for a week without spoiling? The answer is preservatives. But have you ever wondered what these preservatives are made up of? 

![Food additives](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/TRKDlAyRVHlTKH1ktz23Q/c0a3ae3e0fddbabafa04dc811fed45c9/Food_additives.jpg)
[Source](https://www.worldofchemicals.com/401/chemistry-articles/food-additives.html)

Organic acids are quite well known for their excellent preservation capabilities. Their antibacterial activity stems from their capacity to switch from an undissociated to a dissociated state depending on the pH of the microenvironment, making them potent antimicrobial agents. Certain organic salts are employed as preservatives in milk and bread food products to avoid spoiling by preventing bacterial growth and fungal growth. 

### DEFINING CARBOXYLIC ACIDS: 

A carboxyl group is a group that consists of a carbonyl group linked to the very same carbon atom as a hydroxyl group. The organic acid formula for carboxyl groups is commonly expressed as -COOH or CO2H. Carboxylic acids are a kind of molecule defined by a single carboxyl group. 

Here are a few examples of organic acid formula and structure:

![The-chemical-formulas-of-the-organic-acids-used](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/uqBgFDUm02h9T43ItaiM1/2d33916ebc29917e7c697d4b22340fcd/The-chemical-formulas-of-the-organic-acids-used.png)
[Source](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-chemical-formulas-of-the-organic-acids-used_tbl1_225754602)

### ORGANIC ACID FORMULA OF METHANOIC ACID AND BUTANOIC ACID:

![Carboxylic Acid](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3ktmz5KtKIuxSBBbl6DJ03/cd5048a8035c2898c82b425ba5f50a23/f-d_c1bd5994af37ec240ace54ce44074409d48ec0ad91715ba5fab72c20_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/carboxylic-acids/lesson/Carboxylic-Acids-CHEM/)

### PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACID: 

- Carboxylate ions are stabilized via resonance. 
- Bronsted-Lowry acids include carboxylic acids that function as proton donors. 
- The carbonyl group in carboxylic acids acts as a hydrogen bond acceptor, whereas the hydroxyl group acts as a hydrogen donor. As a result, they are frequently involved in hydrogen bonding. 
- They have more stability and higher boiling temperatures than acid in an aqueous state because of their inclination to hydrogen bonds. 
- Carboxylic acids are classified as weak acids in a neutral aqueous solution because they do not completely disintegrate to form H cations. 
- The Schmidt reaction can be used to transform these compounds into amines. 
- A carboxylic acid can be converted to alcohol by causing a hydrogenation reaction with hydrogen. 
- These chemicals produce esters when they react with alcohol. 

![PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACID](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/30KP72SRNd1OOERZBfD03c/763bd48117308d0bf8aa0081823f5de3/40a40a7ad6ad694cf3c482b7949afffbc92a9693.png)
[Source](https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/carboxylic-acids/a/carboxylic-acid-reactions-overview)

### USES OF ORGANIC ACIDS: 

- Carboxylic acids are the building blocks of fatty acids necessary for human health. 
- Soaps made with heavier fatty acids are also common. 
- Many carboxylic acids are used to make soft drinks and other food items. 
- These chemicals are used in the production of numerous medications. As a result, carboxylic acids play a crucial role in pharmacology. 
- Compounds with the carboxyl functional group are used to manufacture various polymers. 

## CONCLUSION:  

- An organic substance with a carboxyl functional group is known as carboxylic acid. 
- A carboxyl group is a group that consists of a carbonyl group linked to the very same carbon atom as a hydroxyl group. 
- COOH is a common abbreviation for a carboxylic acid's general formula. 

### FAQs:  

__1. What are the examples of organic acid?__

Lactic acid, acetic acid, and formic acid are just a few examples of organic acids.

__2. Which acid is organic acid?__

From formic acid until C18 acids, organic acids are aliphatic monobasic carboxylic acids. 

__3. What is the organic acid formula of oxalic acid?__

C₂H₂O₄ is the formula of oxalic acid. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Carboxylic Acids__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎  

## SOURCES: 
1. Organic acids. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/carboxylic-acids/lesson/Carboxylic-Acids-CHEM/. Accessed 27 Jan 2022.
2. Properties of carboxylic acid. https://byjus.com/chemistry/carboxylic-acid-properties/. Accessed 27 Jan 2022.
3. Uses of organic acid. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/carboxylic-acids/. Accessed 27 Jan 2022.


An organic substance with a carboxyl functional group is known as carboxylic acid. 


Carboxylic Acids Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

We all know how difficult it is to teach in a preschool, don’t we? You want the excited young students to stay together and maintain uniformity, but this stability can barely be achieved. A student may carelessly wander off to other strong, attractive forces of a  bright crayon, a fluffy toy, or their parents. The worst is that a student may be scared for some reason and may run off screaming. Now, a student's choice to act individually or with the class depends on the balance. 

Similarly, the electrons and protons in an atom are always in conflict. The ease with which electrons can be withdrawn from an atom affects the atom's reactivity, and this quantity can be measured and used to make accurate predictions about atom behavior.

### DESCRIBE IONIZATION ENERGY 

The energy required to remove an electron from a certain atom is ionization energy. It is expressed in kJ/mol, an energy unit similar to calories. The table below shows some of the ionization energies linked with several elements. 
Any atom's outermost valence electrons will have lower ionization energies than the inner-shell electrons. As more electrons add around a nucleus, the inner shell electrons shield the outer electrons from the nucleus. This is termed electron shielding.

![Successive ionization energies](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/76VYuUSDk4E31rvnS8UEjI/43a50685ca575fc37b477082b48044b6/screenshot-dataforionizationenergies-3rdperiod.png)
[Source](https://socratic.org/questions/582e57b811ef6b1eb55f311f)

We may see the following trend if we describe the trends in first ionization energy vs. atomic number for the major group elements on a graph.                

![Ionization Energy](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1XcPM0sanqgJ2HNEgddlLt/d65c903eea62a90de3db6af803722e4d/20140811155154089919.png)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cheminter/chapter/periodic-trends-ionization-energy/)

### PERIODIC IONIZATION ENERGY TREND 

The ionization energy of electrons in different atomic or molecular orbitals is variable. The xth ionization energy is the energy needed to eliminate the nth electron after the first x-1 electrons have been withdrawn. It measures an atom's or ion's tendency to relinquish an electron or the intensity of the electron binding. 

The more ionization energy there is, the harder it is to remove an electron. The ionization energy of an element can be used to determine its reactivity. The low one's elements tend to be reducing agents.

![ATOMIC RADII: Periodic Table](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2b07XRXTMgay8P2eWIfWP2/a914d652c6c005f14519a25ad27ad2b5/i03nUWdRvvw7SsgQd9Ag__5_.PNG)
[Source](https://socratic.org/questions/5825e4e111ef6b527a305eac)

As you move across a period, the first ionization energy increases. As the atomic size reduces, it becomes more difficult to eliminate an electron nearer to a more central nucleus. 

The ionization energy is likely to reduce as one proceeds downwards the periodic table because the electrons in the outermost shell are further away from the nucleus and more insulated. They are less attracted to the positive charge of the nucleus. Ionization energy increases from Hydrogen to Helium in a period but decreases from Hydrogen to  Francium in a group.

## CONCLUSION: 

- The energy required to remove an electron from a certain atom is known as ionization energy
- The ease with which electrons can be withdrawn from an atom affects the atom's reactivity.
- The ionization energy of electrons in different atomic or molecular orbitals is variable.
- Across the periodic table, ionization energy increases from left to right, and as we progress downwards in a group, the ionization energy decreases.

### FAQs:

__1. How is the first ionization energy trend?__

The first ionization energy increases as you move from left to right over time, but it decreases as you move down a group.

__2. What is the trend for ionization energy?__

The general trend of ionization energy in a periodic table is that the energy increases as you move in the direction of hydrogen to helium and decreases as you move from hydrogen to cesium.

__3. What is the trend in 1st ionization energy from top to bottom down a group?__

The first ionization energy decreases as you go to the bottom of a group. 

__4. What is the group trend in the first ionization energies?__

In general, ionization energy rises over a period and falls as a group descends.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about  the __Trends in the first ionization energy__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun! 😎 *

## SOURCES:

1. Periodic Trends: Ionization Energy. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/periodic-trends:-ionization-energy/lesson/Periodic-Trends%3A-Ionization-Energy-CHEM/. Accessed 31 Jan 2022.
2. Ionization Energy. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Ionization_Energy. Accessed 31 Jan 2022.
3. Ionization Energy. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/ionization-energy/. Accessed 31 Jan 2022.  


An atom's reactivity can be judged by the ease with which the electrons can be withdrawn from an atom. The energy required in this process is called ionization energy. 


Periodic Trends: Ionization Energy Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Have you ever heard of a pheromone? A pheromone is a chemical component released or expelled by members of the same species and causes them to react socially. Pheromones are substances that function like hormones outside of the individual's body that secretes them, influencing the behavior of others who receive them. It has been widely established that insects use them. When a honeybee stings, it emits isoamyl acetate (which is an ester), which acts as an alarm pheromone. Other bees in the nest are drawn to the attack by the alarm pheromone as a collective defense tactic. We will discuss the everyday use of esters in more detail in this article. But first, let's define what an ester is? 

![Bee - pherome](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5CNYHmCAhxaf2J03ESfT9x/1f4f47000eca1e3ca7cf8ba93a53fc68/Nasonov-Photo-Cred-UMN-Bee-Squad.jpg)
[Source](https://backyardbeekeeping.iamcountryside.com/health-pests/communication-with-pheromones/)

### WHAT ARE ESTERS?

An ester is an organic chemical that is a carboxylic acid derivative in which the hydroxyl group's hydrogen atom has been substituted with an alkyl group.
Esters are carboxylic acids with the hydroxyl (OH) group replaced with an alkoxy (O-R) group.

![Alcohol-Ester-Compounds](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/35OwQahWB6sIrto17Q0U8i/adf5947cca7dc4dccd50a8a98ab2aa18/ester___example.png)
[Source](https://www.britannica.com/science/ester-chemical-compound)

### ESTER'S GENERIC FORMULA IS:

![ester-general](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5MCrWwXS8aulPMp7dPNkcA/e8a64f02828161dc22e5e72064d791dc/ester-general.svg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/esters/)

### ESTERS IN NATURE

- Animals and plants produce waxes that are esters of long-chain carboxylic acids and long-chain alcohols.
- Many are accountable for the aroma and flavor of flowers and fruits; for instance, bananas contain isopentyl acetate, wintergreen has methyl salicylate, and pineapples have ethyl butyrate.

![Ester examples](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5i7MYeVcTDWfC2H6r3BcqU/2644ca3820deb6c586d3981edb808692/f-d_6f676cf2a87795b2a2ff487d940af0661043bbba07d471f81a70aede_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/esters/lesson/Esters-CHEM/)

- Artificial flavors, perfumes, and cosmetics include these and other volatile esters with distinct odors.
- Fats and oils are glycerol esters of long-chain carboxylic acids.
- Low-volatility liquid esters are used as softening agents in resins and polymers.
- Many industrially relevant polymers are also found in esters. Dacron is a synthetic polymer made up of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, a dicarboxylic acid.
- Fruit ripens naturally create isoamyl acetate, also known as isopentyl acetate. It gives out a rich, delicious banana aroma.
- One type of ester poses a health risk. Long-chain esters of glycerol and three long-chain fatty acids make up triglycerides. Fast food is high in triglycerides, contributing to the obesity epidemic in humans.

## CONCLUSION: 

- An ester is an organic chemical that is a carboxylic acid derivative in which the hydroxyl group's hydrogen atom has been substituted with an alkyl group.
- The scent of numerous fruits, including apples, pears, bananas, pineapples, and strawberries, is due to esters. Artificial flavors, perfumes, and cosmetics include these and other volatile esters with distinct odors.

### FAQs: 

__1. What ester smells like bananas?__

Fruit ripens naturally create isoamyl acetate, also known as isopentyl acetate. It gives out a rich, delicious banana aroma.

__2. What does amyl acetate taste like?__

Amyl acetate is a white liquid with a characteristic banana aroma and taste. Even though amyl acetates are most commonly used as flavoring agents due to their characteristic banana flavor, they all have a variety of intriguing industrial uses.

__3. How do you make amyl acetate?__

Acetic acid is added to amyl alcohol with a small quantity of concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst to produce amyl acetates in the industrial setting.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Esters__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:
1. I Smell Banana: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/alcohols/rwa/I-Smell-Bananas/ Accessed 26 Feb 2022.
2. Ester: https://byjus.com/chemistry/ester/ Accessed 26 Feb 2022.
3. Ester: https://www.britannica.com/science/ester-chemical-compound Accessed 26 Feb 2022.


Esters are accountable for the aroma and flavor of flowers and fruits.


## INTRODUCTION

Organic chemistry can be difficult but not impossible to understand. Before we get deep into the subject, we need to learn the basics of organic chemistry. So we need to understand what alkanes are? Alkanes are hydrocarbons; the compounds are made with hydrogen and carbons. Carbon is the 14th member of the periodic table; hence, it has a valency of 4. 

### WHAT ARE STRAIGHT-CHAIN ALKANES?

Straight chain alkanes are hydrocarbons, where the carbon atoms are connected in one continuous chain. There are no branches or sub-branches connected. You will find 2 carbon chains, 3 carbon chains to 10 carbon chains. The straight-chain alkanes help to understand the compounds and also ease the organic compound reactions. 

![A Straight Chain Alkane Structure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/55yilCl19ZLsUfjG1ctm24/e2eeb6936bc731b8f203968c29c43c31/Difference-Between-Straight-and-Branched-Chain-Alkanes_1.png)
[Source](https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-straight-and-branched-chain-alkanes/)

### HYDROCARBON CHAIN DEFINITION

A hydrocarbon chain can be defined as an organic molecule constituting carbon and hydrogen atoms organized in a chain. The carbon atoms are interconnected with the help of covalent bonding. And each carbon atom present in the chain is further bonded to 1 or even up to 3 hydrogen atoms. Some examples of hydrocarbons are methane, ethane, etc.

![Branched Chain Alkane](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4unhtWxG2Ztn5LMrLRcUiD/e6effb2e5dabcb2061eb9588748958f8/Difference-Between-Straight-and-Branched-Chain-Alkanes_2-e1573203397875.png)
[Source](https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-straight-and-branched-chain-alkanes/)

### STEPS TO NAME STRAIGHT CHAIN ALKANES

Step 1: You need to identify the longest carbon chain that has a double bond.

Step 2: Then, you have to pick the prefix as per the name of the alkene established on the number of carbon atoms present in the chain.

Step 3: You need to number each carbon atom present in the longest carbon chain. This way, the double-bonded carbon atoms will have the lowest possible digit.

Step 4: Then, you have to determine the infix specified for the name of the given alkene as per the place of the double bond.

Step 5: Take note that the infix may not even be needed if the extended carbon chain contains only two or three carbon atoms.

Step 6: You need to determine the suffix for the name of the alkene.

Step 7: All consecutive chain alkenes that have one double bond will have "ene" at the end of their name.

Step 8: Then, you can write the name for the alkene according to prefix-infix-suffix.

### FAQs

__1. What are the first 10 straight-chain alkanes?__

The first 10 Straight chain alkanes are as follows:   

- Methane
- Ethane
- Propane
- Butane
- Pentane
- Hexane
- Heptane
- Octane
- Nonane
- Decane

__2. How do you name a straight-chain alkane?__

Naming a straight-chain alkane is very easy. The name of each alkane starts with a suffix that specifies the number of carbon atoms present and ends with a -ane. The molecular formula of the straight-chain alkane follows the pattern CₙH₂ₙ₊₂, where n is the number of carbon atoms present.

__3. What is straight-chain alkane?__

A straight-chain alkane is a hydrocarbon that only contains molecules of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Carbon has 4 valence electrons, and it is the 14th member of the periodic table. Hence, it can place only four atoms on four sides.

__3. What is a straight-chain compound?__

A straight-chain compound consists of carbon atoms connected in a continuous straight line. The carbon atoms are connected in a continuous chain; the carbon atom is bound to its neighbors, i.e., two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Straight Chain Alkanes__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES

1. IUPAC Naming Straight Chain Alkenes:https://www.ausetute.com.au/namsenes.html. Accessed 5th March 2022.
2. Straight Chain Alkenes: https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Kentucky/UK%3A_CHE_103_-_Chemistry_for_Allied_Health_(Soult)/Chapters/Chapter_3%3A_Compounds/3.2%3A_Straight-Chain_Alkanes. Accessed 5th March 2022.


Straight chain alkanes are formed with carbons and hydrogen atoms. These are mainly hydrocarbons. 

Straight-Chain Alkanes Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

Who does not wish to travel back in time to trace their great-great-grandparents. Unfortunately, none of us is Marty McFly (from Back to the Future franchise), and the only logical way to unveil your family history would be by tracing a family tree. The details of this tree have to be looked into carefully so that you may not end up declaring Hitler to be your Uncle. 🤭
You need to take similar care while studying the branching of alkanes. 

### BRANCHED ALKANES 

A saturated hydrocarbon is known as an alkane, and it can be straight-chained, Linear, branched, or even cyclic.

An alkane with alkyl groups linked to its main carbon chain is a branched-chain alkane or branched alkane. Branched alkanes include carbon and hydrogen (C and H) atoms, and carbon atoms are only coupled to certain other carbons by single bonds. Still, the molecules have branches like methyl, ethyl, etc., and are thus not simple.

![Branched alkanes](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4vRMjoEwMendooD5ik4ch/abd0f42bc8abf5c2bb43b62b77a44291/pentane_02.gif)
[Source](https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/molecule_gallery/01_alkanes/00_alkanes.htm)

### ALKANE EXAMPLE

Starting with pentane as an alkane example, there are two alternative structures for this structure that are not straight-chain and are rather branched. These alternatives are termed structural isomers. They are multiple structures that can be formed with molecules having the same molecular formula.  

For instance, here 2 -methylbutane and 2,2 - dimethylpropane or neopentane are the structural isomers of the given pentane. 2-methylbutane here is an easy-branched alkane example. However, the names of these structures are not something you can cram. These names are coined according to IUPAC rules. It's important to learn the rules for naming branched alkanes to create a universal standard for identifying chemicals to make communication easier. 

![2,3-dimethylbutane](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3hvaoHWxOrgLH6G9OWzrHJ/c6e3fc00572df7e4c2b9d136098ae530/2971.png)
[Source](https://haz-map.com/Agents/2971)

Let's try understanding the naming of these branched alkanes with this isomer of hexane -  
- First, find the longest chain of carbon in the structure that is continuous. In this case, it will be the chain linking carbon 1 and carbon 4.
- Begin at the end, which will result in the minimum possible numbers for the carbon atoms wherein the branches arise. As here, both the carbons have identical positions to start either way. 
- The attached atoms are called substituents. These are called alkyl groups. The prefixes here are the same, but the suffix has to be ‘yl.’ In the current structure, we have 2-methyl and 3-methyl. 
- A prefix has to be used in case 2 or more similar substituents are present. In the example, we will have 2,3-dimethyl. 
- Different substituents have to be placed alphabetically. For instance, 2-ethyl comes before 4-methyl. 
- At last, commas have to be used to separate numbers and hyphens between the number and the name of the substituent. 

The IUPAC name of the branched alkane is 2,3-dimethylbutane.

## CONCLUSION:

- Branched alkanes include carbon and hydrogen (C and H) atoms.
- An alkane with alkyl groups linked to its main carbon chain is a branched-chain alkane or branched alkane.
- The names of branched alkanes are established according to IUPAC. 

### FAQs:

__1. How do you name branched alkanes?__

- Compute the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain.
- Beginning with the endpoint closest to a branch, count the carbons in the chain.
- Count how many carbons are in each branch.
- Look for repetitive alkyl groups.
- In alphabetical sequence, but the labels of the substituent groups in front of the parent chain's name.

__2. What is straight and branched-chain alkane?__

A saturated hydrocarbon is known as an alkane, and it can be straight-chained, Linear, branched, or even cyclic.

__3. What is branched and unbranched?__

An alkane with linked alkyl groups on its parent chain is called branching, where the ones with no link are called unbranched. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Branched Alkanes__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Branched Alkanes. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/branched-alkanes/lesson/Branched-Alkanes-CHEM/. Accessed 1 Feb 2022.
2. Alkanes. https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/molecule_gallery/01_alkanes/00_alkanes.htm. Accessed 1 Feb 2022. 
3. How to Name Branched Alkanes in Chemistry. https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/science/chemistry/how-to-name-branched-alkanes-in-chemistry-143029. Accessed 1 Feb 2022.


 In a branched alkane, an alkyl group is linked to the main Carbon chain.


Branched Alkanes Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 
Have you ever wondered what keeps your precious chocolate ice cream from turning into a chocolate shake? Obviously, the answer is a freezer, but what is the scientific way to answer it? Refrigerators in our kitchens use refrigerants such as chlorofluorocarbons (an alkyl halide), which helps freeze our ice creams. 

However, the impacts of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) on the stratospheric ozone layer have been a source of worry. In the 1970s, various countries, notably the United States, banned the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as aerosol sprays. These threatening yet useful gases here are an eminent example of what we are going to study in this article, the alkyl halides in organic chemistry.

![Ozone](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6zdB31PklTt80M3la0Tnot/56835a626e9f9f9abadf417ca4e7eca5/pasted_image_0__8_2.png)
[Source](https://www.jatinverma.org/phasing-out-ozone-depleting-substances-odss)

### WHAT ARE ALKYL HALIDES? 

An alkyl halide is an organic compound in which one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane have been replaced by halogen atoms  (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine) 

![ALKYL HALIDES](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/Qlm0gHCvMqUZfVNNuoPPU/4fabdcf7a513d05bbe804f35df810201/alkylhalogenidegif.gif)
[Source](http://www.chemgapedia.de/vsengine/vlu/vsc/en/ch/12/oc/vlu_organik/substitution/alkylhalogenide/einfuehrung.vlu/Page/vsc/en/ch/12/oc/substitution/alkylhalogenide/nomenklatur_der_halogenalkane/nomenklatur.vscml.html)

In the above example, the letter R stands for alkyl group and the X for a halogen atom. We utilize the generalized formula R-X to describe an alkyl halide with 3 further categories on the basis of whether the halogen atom is bonded to a primary, secondary or tertiary carbon atom. (The primary carbon atom is the carbon which is attached to only one other carbon atom. Similarly for secondary and tertiary). 

### NOMENCLATURE OF HALOALKANES 

The question of how to name alkyl halides (also known as haloalkanes) can be answered in 2 ways: the common name and the IUPAC name. The simple steps to do so are listed below by taking CH3CH2CH2Br as an example:

- Find the longest carbon chain. Here,  the propyl group is the longest carbon chain. 
- Position the longest carbon chain so that the halogen(s) is/are linked to the carbon atom(s) with the lowest number (s). Here, we will position the carbon next to the Bromine as the first carbon. 
- When identical halogen atoms are linked to a carbon atom, multiple halogen atoms are labelled with Greek numerical prefixes such as di, tri, and tetra. The above example has only one bromine so no such prefix would be used. 
- When several types of halogens are attached, they are designated alphabetically. In case the above example had a Chlorine linked to it, then the order of naming would have been Bromine followed by Chlorine. 
- The halogen atom's position is specified by placing the halogen's location and title just before the parent hydrocarbon's name. The position of the halogen here is 1-Bromo. 
- The example's final IUPAC name is 1-bromopropane.

![alkyl halide nomenclature](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6FYruNGBUbAsrHbAovpNy7/80d2d6dcc54d82d5d69cc1567ae4867c/namengif.gif)
[Source](http://www.chemgapedia.de/vsengine/vlu/vsc/en/ch/12/oc/vlu_organik/substitution/alkylhalogenide/einfuehrung.vlu/Page/vsc/en/ch/12/oc/substitution/alkylhalogenide/nomenklatur_der_halogenalkane/nomenklatur.vscml.html)

Some of the examples of alkyl halides are listed below: 

![Examples of alkyl halides](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1dZXPVzypf0xm4rX9ba9dZ/d064cd7a54aac648b212b3279cd82973/examples_of_alkyl_halides.png)

Note:
Because there is just one carbon atom in the structure based on methane, there is no need to employ a number. The chloro is listed first alphabetically in the third example.

### USES OF ALKYL HALIDES 
Alkyl halides are an integral part of organic chemistry and are widely used throughout, some of them being: 

- In chemistry, short-chain haloalkanes are frequently utilized as hydrophobic solvents.
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were widely utilized as coolants and propellants. Halon 1211 and Halon 1301, as well as others, are used in fire extinguishers.
- Initially, haloforms (an alkyl halide)  were used as a sedative.
- Inhalation anesthetic halothane (2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane) has been used in specific instances.

## CONCLUSION

- An alkyl halide is an organic compound in which one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane have been replaced by halogen atoms  (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine) 
- A certain set of IUPAC norms have to be followed to name these alkyl halides.
- Alkyl halides are an integral part of organic chemistry and are used as a refrigerant, hydrophobic solvents, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), fire extinguishers, etc. 

### FAQs:

__1. What is the general formula of Haloalkanes?__

A: The compounds with the generic formula "RX," where R is an alkyl or a substituted alkyl group, and X is a halogen, are called haloalkanes or alkyl halides (F, Cl, Br, I).

__2. What is the general formula of aryl halides?__

A: Aryl halides have the generic formula ArX, where Ar is phenyl, branched phenyl, or aryl groups.

__3. What is alkyl halide?__

A: Alkyl halides, commonly known as haloalkanes or halogenoalkanes, are chemical compounds made up of one or more halogens.

__4. What is alkyl halide and aryl halide?__

A: Alkyl halides, commonly known as haloalkanes or halogenoalkanes, are chemical compounds made up of one or more halogens. Aryl halides are compounds with a halogen directly bonded to an aromatic ring carbon.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Alkyl Halides__ General Formula! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:

1. Alkyl Halides. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/alkyl-halides/lesson/Alkyl-Halides-CHEM/?referrer=concept_details. Accessed 27 Jan, 2022.
2. Alkyl Halides. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Alkyl_Halides. Accessed 27 Jan, 2022. 


A subset of the general class of halocarbons, alkyl halide, is an organic molecule in which one or more halogen atoms are replaced for one or more hydrogen atoms. 

Alkyl Halides Study Guide

# Introduction
Have you ever taken a sliced apple for your school lunch? If so, you would’ve noticed how it turns brown even though it was fresh, juicy, and crispy while cutting. How about a banana? Why does it turn brown when left in the open? The process they go through is known as __enzymatic browning__, and it happens due to the presence of an enzyme known as __polyphenol oxidase__.

Fruits and vegetables look fresh and juicy with their skin intact, but not all of the farm-fresh produce reach your nearby supermarket. Have you wondered why? Or why do they come with an expiration date? Fruits and vegetables like lettuce, apricots, apple, mushroom, etc., undergo enzymatic browning. This phenomenon can lead to severe degradation in product quality because no one would buy a brown banana. This is why such fruits and vegetables have a specified expiration or “best before” date. 

![fruits](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6cx7ziqEcJoGdas2qYJtYT/c3d6088bacd8c409707bb104fbdaa7e7/f8bba9_e1cb5dcf1ec04658a2305d09aa074a69_mv2.jpg)
[Source](https://inevitablescience.wixsite.com/inevsci/post/browning-of-fruits-and-vegetables)

## HOW DOES IT HAPPEN? 
- The process of enzymatic browning is a slow process involving several steps. 
- PPO or polyphenol oxidase is the enzyme behind this that changes the phenolic compound present into another compound known as quinones. 
- Melanin is then produced when quinone reacts with other compounds. 
- Does melanin sound familiar to you? Yep! It is the same pigment that is responsible for maintaining your hair color, your skin color, and also the irises. 
- However, in the case of fruits and vegetables, it does not offer any productive benefit but rather degrades their value. 

- Fresh fruits and vegetables do not undergo this enzymatic browning process. 
- However, when PPO, phenolic compounds, and oxygen compounds come in contact, they trigger each other. 
- This mostly happens with sliced fruits if they fall or have been knocked around several times. 
- Due to external factors like cold, heat, and humidity, the fruit tissues get damaged, and the cell breaks down, leading to phenolic compounds being released, which then mix with oxygen. 
- Therefore, the tissue turns brown within seconds. 

## EXAMPLE- APPLE OXIDATION 
- When you slice an apple or knock it off a few times, oxygen is introduced into the damaged plant tissues. 
- With the presence of oxygen within the cells, PPO present in the chloroplasts rapidly oxidizes the phenolic compounds that you would naturally find in apples. 
- This leads to O-quinones, which would form the brown color pigment by reacting with amino acids and proteins, or they could even self-assemble, creating polymers, resulting in the oxidation of apples. 

![apple](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5EVMZlfHr2fiJQlI27vXHB/585a7890d9e118a2cd833afe56d642f3/409E7C55-DDA5-442E-BEF368457F16CAA7_source.jpg)
[Source](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-why-cut-apples-turn-brown/)

Enzymatic browning at home could be reduced by preventing PPO oxidation or lowering the amount of substrate. You could coat your apples in syrup or sugar coating to reduce oxygen diffusion. 

# SUMMARY
- In the presence of oxygen, fresh fruits and vegetables could often brown; the phenomenon is termed enzymatic browning. 
- This happens when PPO changes phenolic compounds into quinones, resulting in the release of melanin, leading to the browning of fruits.
- Enzymatic browning is unique for apples and happens in mushrooms, apricots, and bananas as well. 
- You could stop the browning of apples by reducing PPO oxidation. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Fruit Oxidation!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun! 😎* 

## Sources: 

1. Fruits Gone Bad: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fruits-gone-bad-discover-enzymatic-browning/Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
2. Browning in Apples: https://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/bmb.21083. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
3. Why do apple slices turn brown? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-why-cut-apples-turn-brown/. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.

Oxygen present in the air often leads sliced fruits to brown; this process is often termed fruit oxidation or enzymatic browning. 


Fruit Oxidation Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 
Chemical compound C₄H₁₀ has boiling points of 260 K and 272 K. But how can a compound have 2 different boiling points?
It is because C₄H₁₀ exists in different isomeric forms. Let's find out what are structural isomers and what are stereoisomers!

### WHAT ARE ISOMERS?

The compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms are called isomers, like in the case of C₄H₁₀. Let's understand what we mean by different arrangements! C₄H₁₀, when arranged linearly, forms n-butane, which has a boiling point of 272 K, while when arranged with the branch, the form is called iso-butane, which has a boiling point of 260 K. This means that even though the molecular formula of isomers is the same, their physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, solubility etc. and chemical properties can differ.

![ISOMERS](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4obNDwTLwKl7cACSIL5tD9/d39aaa215c4d2f96090faf34f7061f25/7fa08544db1e27403fe4a2f84767cdd5c4f7d5b7.png)
[Source](https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/properties-of-carbon/hydrocarbon-structures-and-functional-groups/a/hydrocarbon-structures-and-isomers)

### TYPES OF ISOMERS:
Let's explore the types of isomers mentioned above. 

### STRUCTURAL ISOMERS:

Compounds with the same molecular formula, but the atoms bonded differently, are called structural isomers. The above-explained compounds n-butane and iso-butane are examples of structural isomers.

![Structural isomerism](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/33zp0pMJdtqrttoUEUI7ys/c7b539f8e25096742d1c4d34ad73351d/main-qimg-f9ba21166992a0bd5fefeeca7d414644)
[Source](https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-geometrical-and-structural-isomerism)

In this example, just the position of OH has generated two different structural isomers. 

![ethanol-and-ether2](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4fFqoSedVNMnDgBfhRVPB5/5f93549f1e91a7d753b388d73d4eb9b5/ethanol-and-ether.png)
[Source](https://www.chemistrysteps.com/constitutional-structural-isomers/)

In this example, the number of atoms is the same, but the arrangement is different, which is responsible for making isomers with two different functional groups.  

### GEOMETRIC ISOMERS:

Isomers with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms in space are geometric isomers. Geometrical isomers have different physical and chemical properties.

The interesting fact about geometric isomers is that their groups cannot interchange their positions independently. Let's understand with the help of an example:

![ cis and trans isomers of 1, 2-dibromoethene](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1ISv2hWkPNAF9EPx0kem72/46d579a48f2166864fc41a39eae4b3c0/190817.png)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-mv/question/dipole-moment-could-be-used-to-distinguish-between-the-cis-and-trans-isomers-of-1/)

In cis-dibromoethene, the Br groups are on the same side, while in trans-dibromoethene, the Br groups are on opposite sides. But the cis and trans dibromoethene cannot interchange into one another on their own, which is why they are geometrical isomers.

For isomers to be geometrical, the rotation around the double bond has to be restricted along with different arrangements of groups in space. Since geometrical isomers are arranged differently in space, they are also called stereoisomers. 

## CONCLUSION:
- Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements. 
- Structural Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms in bonding. 
- Geometric Isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms in space and restricted rotation. 

### FAQs:

__1. Which isomer is trans, and which one is cis?__

![Cis and trans isomer](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/78tNOcVUsKUrWF6BAdsmha/c496dad22681dd21a3eb2ffb8b4564a3/Cis_and_trans_isomer.png)

The one with -CH₂CH₃ groups on the different side is a trans isomer.
The other one with -CH₂CH₃ groups on the same side is a cis isomer.

![Cis-trans isomers](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6OHnhdWdXrmhDustZkYZhS/bd49a8a9e6848027da8d32c82f6ba489/1b.jpg)

__2. Can geometric isomers show rotation around double bonds?__

No, geometric isomers have restricted rotation around the double bond.

__3. The following compounds are structural or geometric isomers?__

![structural isomers](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3GNuslsjgzuiGZpVCPsfHj/0625df14175b274c6a3ef14f6daca733/structural_isomers.png)

The compounds given are structural isomers as they have different arrangements of atoms in bonding. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Structural and geometrical isomers__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:
1. Structural Isomers and Stereoisoemrs: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/structural-isomers-and-stereoisomers/lesson/Isomers-CHEM/. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.
2. Hydrocarbon Structures and Isomers. Khan Academy, 2018, www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/properties-of-carbon/hydrocarbon-structures-and-functional-groups/a/hydrocarbon-structures-and-isomers.

For the same chemical formula, different compounds can exist, which are called isomers. When compounds with the same molecular formula are bonded differently, they are called structural isomers, and when they have different arrangements of atoms in space are called geometric isomers.


Structural and Geometric Isomers Study Guide

TL;DR Straight Chain Alkanes

TL;DR Fruit Oxidation

TL;DR Structural And Geometric Isomers

TL;DR Branched Alkanes

TL;DR Carboxylic Acids

TL;DR Esters

Oxidation reactions are essential to some of life's most basic functions, such as photosynthesis, combustion, and corrosion! So let's learn more about these reactions in this cheat sheet.

TL;DR Oxidation Reactions

The replacement of a hydrogen atom gives an alkyl halide and this compound is what we shall learn about in this cheat sheet!

TL;DR Alkyl Halides

Ethers were the very first anaesthetics and can be found today in products such as perfumes and waxes. Let's get to know all about them in this cheat sheet!

perfumes

TL;DR Ethers

Aspirin · Food · Lipstick · False teeth · Solar panels · Clothing - evryday products that employ the use of hydrocarbons. Curious to know more? Check out this cheat sheet!