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Concentration is a familiar concept to most of us in our daily lives. We all know that adding too much coffee powder to our coffee can result in a too-strong beverage, while too little may result in a diluted, unimpressive morning coffee. Play with this simulation to visualize the relationship between the solute, solvent and their respective volumes!

concentration simulation

Concentration

## INTRODUCTION 
We all know how refreshing a cold glass of lemonade is in the exhausting summer season. The lemonade we make is an ideal example of a solution in chemical terms. A solute, which is relatively lower in quantity, is added into a greater quantity of a solvent in a solution. In the case of lemonade, the water is the solvent (as it is present in a greater quantity), and the sugar and the lime juice are the solutes that get dissolved in the solvent. But what happens if we continue to add the solutes in our solvent? 🤔 

![Super saturated Solution](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2ppqwmBMvWW8F8K2mtwsZ6/16a7287936425a894535e0fb723ad2ea/saturated-solution-examples_0066f46bde.jpg) 
[Source](https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-saturated-solution.html)

### WHAT IS A SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION IN CHEMISTRY? 
A supersaturated solution has gone above saturation. When the solute in a liquid is in a stable system with the non-soluble form of the solute, the solution is said to be saturated. When a solution's solute concentration reaches its maximum potential concentration, it is saturated. On the other hand, a supersaturated solution has more absorbed solute than a saturated solution.

![Supersaturated Solution](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3QfqEdtxGlfwOHJvxpEfp8/c65792cefae23791b01e3a73f6603229/supersaturated_solution.png)
[Source](https://www.expii.com/t/supersaturated-solution-definition-overview-8038)

A supersaturated solution of Sodium Acetate would be an ideal example. We know that sodium acetate does not recrystallize easily. No crystals appear when a saturated sodium acetate solution is cooled down, but surplus dissolved solute crystallizes when a small quantity of solute crystals are seeded into a supersaturated solution. This recrystallization process is achieved because of the supersaturated sodium of acetate solution. 

### CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION 

- __Concentration of solute surpasses its solubility__

A solute's solubility tends to increase as the temperature is raised. As a result, if a saturated solution produced at a high temperature is refrigerated, it will become a supersaturated solution as long as crystallization and condensation processes are prevented. 

- __Metastable solution__

In a supersaturated solution, the extra solute represents the extra energy. In other words, a supersaturated solution is stuck in an energy state more than its normal condition because it is not in dynamic equilibrium. 

- __Crystallization__

Since the crystallization and condensation activities ordinarily bring the solutions into dynamic equilibrium are kinetically prevented, supersaturated solutions arise. The heat required to form these crystals and droplets is unavailable in some biochemical conditions, such as cooling a supersaturated solution. In such circumstances, adding seed crystals is the only method to get around the kinetic restrictions.

## CONCLUSION:

- A supersaturated solution has more absorbed solute than a saturated solution
- It can be made by boiling a saturated solution, putting additional solute, and slowly reducing its temperature.
- A solute's solubility tends to increase as the temperature is raised. 
- As a result, if a saturated solution produced at a high temperature is refrigerated, it will become a supersaturated solution as long as crystallization and condensation processes are prevented.

### FAQs: 
__1. What is a supersaturated solution? Give an example?__

A supersaturated solution has more dispersed solute than the maximum quantity of solute that may be dispersed at a specific temperature. A heat pack is an ideal example of a supersaturated solution made up of material such as sodium acetate.

__2. What are the characteristics of supersaturated solutions?__

The major characteristics of a supersaturated solution are 

(1) The concentration of the solute surpasses its solubility

(2) the solution is metastable (i.e., not in equilibrium)

(3) crystallization and condensation activities are kinetically suppressed

__3. What are a supersaturated solution and an unsaturated solution?__

A supersaturated solution has more dispersed solute than the maximum quantity of solute that may be dispersed at a specific temperature. In contrast, the amount of solute that can be dissolved in an unsaturated solution is less than the maximum amount. 

__4. How is a supersaturated solution formed?__

Supersaturated solutions are generally formed by adding more solute in a  heated solution. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Supersaturated Solution__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:
1. Supersaturated Solutions. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/supersaturated-solutions/lesson/Supersaturated-Solutions-CHEM/. Accessed 1 Feb 2022. 
2. Supersaturated Solution: Definition & Example. supersaturated-solution-definition-example-quiz.html. Accessed 1 Feb 2022. 


 A supersaturated solution has more absorbed solute than a saturated solution.


Supersaturated Solution Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION
Those in colder areas have seen the trucks spread salt on the roadways. Why? When flying in frigid weather, planes must be de-iced before take-off. Why is that the case? Pure solvents have different boiling and freezing points than solutions. All the colligative properties (like vapor pressure, boiling, and freezing temperature) and their values change by adding a solute to an existing solution.

![plane-being-deiced](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/gxQOewfTqzng9btpfKODP/a80da2a9a7418f52d3edb5c4a48039ae/plane-being-deiced-ap-image-1.jpg)
[Source](https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/why-its-so-critical-to-deice-planes-prior-to-takeoff/337056)

### WHAT ARE COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES?

- Colligative qualities are those of a solution determined by the number of particles in a given volume of solvent (concentration) rather than the mass or nature of the solute particles. 
- The temperature has an impact on colligative characteristics as well.
- Vapour pressure reduction, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure reduction, and boiling point elevation are colligative qualities.

### VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

- The pressure imposed by a liquid's gaseous form when vaporization and condensation happen at equal rates is known as the equilibrium vapor pressure:
Liquid ⇌ gas
- When a non-volatile chemical is dissolved in a volatile liquid, the vapor pressure of the liquid is reduced. 
- Solvent molecules have to be located at the solution's surface for it to evaporate. 
- The presence of a solute limits the accessible surface area for solvent molecules, lowering the rate of solvent vaporization. 
- Because the availability of a solute does not affect the rate of condensation, the vaporization-condensation equilibrium is attained with fewer solvent molecules in the vapor phase (i.e., at a lower vapor pressure).

![Vapour pressure lowering](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/coZnEgTYFK0XwpeclEBGD/bfcc04dacb34ca5ac92fe44f42cf2fce/Hi6cO.png)
[Source](https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/22395/what-causes-the-lowering-of-vapour-pressure-in-volatile-nonvolatile-solvent-mixt)

### BOILING POINT ELEVATION

The temperature at which a liquid's vapor pressure equals ambient air pressure is its boiling point. Because the introduction of non-volatile solutes lowers a solution's vapor pressure, it logically follows that the solution's boiling point will rise as a result.

The elevation of the boiling point can be estimated using the equation:
                              ΔTb = Kb*m

where,

Kb = ebullioscopy constant

m = molality of the solute

ΔT = Change in temperature

### FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

- Solutions freeze at lower temperatures as compared to pure liquids. This phenomenon is used in "de-icing" schemes that employ salt, calcium chloride, or urea to melt the ice on streets and sidewalks and in the use of ethylene glycol as an "antifreeze" in car radiators.
- The lowering in freezing point can be estimated by using:

                                   ΔT = i*Kf*m
where, 

ΔT = Change in temperature

i = van 't Hoff factor

Kf = molal freezing point depression constant or cryoscopy constant

m = molality of the solute

## CONCLUSION
- Colligative qualities are those of a solution solely dependent on the concentration of solute molecules.
- The four colligative properties are vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.

### FAQs: 

__1. What are the four colligative properties?__

The four colligative properties are vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.

__2. Which are the Colligative properties?__

Colligative characteristics are those of a solution determined only by the number of particles of the solute, such as ions or molecules, in a given quantity of the solvent rather than the type of the solute.

__3. What are colligative properties? Give examples.__

Compound attributes that are affected by the concentration of the substance present are known as colligative properties. The four primary colligative qualities are the boiling point, freezing point, vapor pressure, and osmotic pressureare the four primary colligative qualities.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Colligative Properties__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES
1. Lumen Learning: https://courses.lumenlearning.com Accessed 26 Feb 2022
2. Definition of Colligative Properties: https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-colligative-properties-604410 Accessed 26 Feb 2022
3. Properties of Solutions: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/freezing-point-depression/lesson/Properties-of-Solutions-MS-PS/?referrer=concept_details Accessed 26 Feb 2022


Colligative qualities are those of a solution solely dependent on the concentration of solute molecules.



Colligative Properties Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

The membranes of fish cells, like those of other cells, are semi-permeable. The concentration of "things" along either side of them should eventually balance out. Inside a fish that thrives in salt water, there will be some salty water. If you put it in freshwater, the freshwater will enter the fish through osmosis, prompting its cells to enlarge and the fish to die. If we want to stop the water from moving along its natural tendency, we'll have to apply some external pressure to stop it. This pressure is referred to as osmotic pressure. Let's take a closer look at this.

![Seawater Fish](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/38q4L7PAYa3eLjhHReP8UP/032e9177c61acf090b56fd8f1a836cc4/Folie2-1024x576.jpg)
[Source](https://blogionik.org/blog/2017/06/16/salt-regulation/)

### WHAT IS OSMOSIS?

The overall movement or flow of solvent molecules over a semi-permeable membrane through which solute particles cannot pass is called osmosis.

### OSMOTIC PRESSURE

- The pressure that must be provided to a solution to avoid the inward movement of water through a semipermeable membrane is known as osmotic pressure. 
- The pressure required to nullify osmosis is also known as osmotic pressure. 
- Increasing the hydrostatic pressure on the solution side of the membrane, which squeezes the solvent molecules nearer and increases their "escaping tendency," is one technique to limit osmosis. 
- The solution's escape tendency can be increased until it reaches the same level as the particles in the pure solvent; at this juncture, osmosis will stop.

![Osmotic Pressure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6yGMR5WaP4nCoqIGq916mn/15e2ea5494695f72c5a7cb4df788030c/osmotic-pressure.png)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/osmotic-pressure/)

### FORMULA TO CALCULATE OSMOTIC PRESSURE

The osmotic pressure is the amount of pressure needed to achieve osmotic balance.
It is a colligative feature influenced by the solute molecule concentration in the solution. The following equation can be used to compute osmotic pressure:

- π = iCRT
- π - Osmotic pressure
- i - Van't Hoff factor
- C - Molar concentration of the solute in the solution
- R - Universal gas constant
- T - Temperature

### REVERSE OSMOSIS:

Now you may wonder what happens when the solution side is subjected to a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure?
In this case, the solvent molecules would begin to move from the solution side (where the solute levels are high) to the solvent side thru the semi-permeable barrier (where the solute concentration is low). This is known as reverse osmosis.

![Reverse Osmosis](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/73lqNV8WDJimFysVldEcee/7756a04a089e66a393e333a06eb66996/Osmosis-Color.png)
[Source](https://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis)

## CONCLUSION: 

- The overall movement or flow of solvent molecules over a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis.
- The pressure that must be provided to a solution to avoid the inward movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane is known as osmotic pressure.

### FAQs: 

__1. What is pi in osmotic pressure?__

Π is the osmotic pressure in atm. Water moves towards the solution with the greatest concentration due to osmotic pressure.

__2. What is MRT in chemistry?__

Pi=MRT, wherein Pi is the osmotic pressure in atm, M is the molarity, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the kelvin temperature, is used to determine the osmotic pressure of a solution.

__3. What is pi = CRT?__

The equation π = CRT gives the osmotic pressure of a solution (where C is the molarity of the solution).

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Osmotic Pressure π = MRT__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:

1. Osmotic Pressure: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/osmotic-pressure/ Accessed 26 Feb 2022
2. Osmotic Pressure Equation: https://byjus.com/chemistry/osmotic-pressure-equation/ Accessed 26 Feb 2022


 The osmotic pressure is the amount of pressure needed to achieve osmotic balance.



Osmotic Pressure π = MRT Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Almost every poet can't help but praise the beauty of grown flowers in their poetry. A tulip garden is definitely a peaceful sight to see. As we all know, plants are living beings, and we can usually see them standing on their own, as they are an important part of our environment. But have you ever wondered how these plants manage to stay upright? Plants do not have bones to sustain their structure, like humans do. Osmotic pressure, a colligative property of solution, can answer this question.

![Osmotic Pressure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5hxwhAT2lgzuAb4xrBvNBX/5c2299e1d6716406613ebce524605e07/IMG20220118WA0005-300x230.jpg)
[Source](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/osmosis-and-osmotic-pressure/)

### OSMOSIS 

Colligative properties of solutions are determined by the concentration of solute molecules or ions and not by the identification of the solute. Vapor pressure reduction, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure reduction are all examples of colligative qualities. These are the properties of solutions that are not dependent on the identity of the solute but are dependent on the concentration of the solute molecules. The overall flow or passage of solvent molecules over a semipermeable membrane (one that allows the diffusion of particular molecules or ions through it ) through which solute molecules cannot pass is called osmosis. A net movement of solvent into the solution side of the membrane occurs when a sample containing both solute and solvent molecules is introduced on one side of the membrane, and the pure solvent is poured on the other.

__Note:__ Solute particles cannot flow through the semipermeable barrier since it only permits solvent molecules to flow across.

![Osmotic-Pressure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3WisZvYpid7ZJVGWRhSpcZ/a47c2f2aef4dac3a8345667b57d0b005/Osmotic-Pressure.png)
[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/osmotic-pressure-definition-formula-examples/)

### OSMOTIC PRESSURE

The osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure required to prevent the inward movement of a solution's pure solvent across a semipermeable barrier. It can also be described as a measurement of a solution's tendency to absorb a pure solvent via osmosis.

                                      π = MRT

where, 

pi (π) is the osmotic pressure 

M is the molar concentration 

R is the gas constant 

T is the temperature 

### APPLICATIONS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE 

Filtration ("reverse osmosis"), a typical water treatment method, is based on osmotic pressure. This is an extensively used water purification technology and is based on osmotic pressure. The filtered water is deposited in a chamber and subjected to a force greater than the osmotic pressure exerted by the water and any dissolved solutes.

## CONCLUSION:  

- The passage of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a low to a high solute concentration region is referred to as osmosis.
- The osmosis process can be stopped if enough stress is put to the solution side of the semipermeable membrane. This stress is called osmotic pressure. 
- The following formula can be used to estimate osmotic pressure:

                                      π = MRT

### FAQs: 

__1. How do electrolytes affect colligative properties?__ 

Electrolytes dissociate to add more solutes to the solution, changing the colligative characteristics significantly.

__2. What are the colligative properties that explain why electrolytes have abnormally high values of colligative properties?__

The properties of solutions that are not dependent on the identity of the solute but are dependent on the concentration of the solute molecules are termed colligative properties. Because the solute breaks down into ions in an electrolyte solution, the quantity of particles is higher, and the impact on colligative qualities will be higher as the number of ions increases.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Osmotic Pressure__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Osmotic pressure: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/electrolytes-and-colligative-properties/enrichment/Osmotic-Pressure-%C3%8F%C2%80-MRT-Example-2/. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.
2. Osmotic Pressure: http://pharmaceuticalmicrobiologi.blogspot.com/2017/01/osmotic-pressure.html. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.


A force that opposes osmosis is a useful attribute that can be used in various situations. 


Osmotic Pressure Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

What does one mean by molality? What is molality in chemistry? Molality is a characteristic of any solution, defined as the total number of moles of solute present per kilogram of solvent. 

A solution primarily consists of two components- solvent and solute. There are various ways and calculations to express the concentration of solutions, like molarity, normality, molality, volume and weight percentage, and formality alongside part per million. 

### WHAT IS MOLARITY?

Molar concentration measures the chemical species concentration, particularly a solute in a solvent, in terms of the amount of substance per unit volume of solution. 

                                   M = n/v 

where M equals molar concentration, N is moles of solute, and v is liters of solution. 

### MOLALITY AND its FORMULA 
The molality of a solution is often defined by 'm' and is the amount of solute present in moles, divided by the total mass in a kilogram of the solvent.

![Molality ](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4WHWS4H0cQUlxOmLuUlG9s/509b526a272a83efad8d53d51ac4c9d9/molality_formula.png)
[Source](https://study.com/academy/lesson/molality-definition-formula.html#:~:text=The%20formula%20for%20molality%20is,of%20solute%20%2F%20kilograms%20of%20solvent.)

Compared to other molar concentrations or even mass concentrations, the solution preparation of a given molality is easier. Besides, in some weak aqueous solutions, the value of molality and molarity are almost similar. This is because 1 kg of water takes up 1 liter of volume at normal temperature, and the negligible amount of solute has significantly less effect on the overall volume.

Unlike molarity which completely depends on solution volume, molality is a intensive property and is only calculated as moles of a solute divided by the total kilograms of the solvent. Molarity varies greatly because of variation in volume due to external factors like temperature and pressure. When working with a wide temperature range, molality is taken as the standard calculation.

For example, we know that salt easily gets dissolved in water. Does that mean you cannot calculate the molality? If you only know the basics, including the mass of salt and water, the molality could be easily determined. 

![Molality](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3Ci6qWT2nlLn4KP4ArEkQN/5c228c131f5d068b85c8c17855a59609/molaity.jpg)
[Source](https://surfguppy.com/solutions/molality-definition-molality-calculation/)

### WHAT IS THE UNIT OF MOLALITY? 

The SI unit of molality is expressed as mol/kg, or it can be termed as moles solute per kilogram of solvent. 

### HOW TO CALCULATE MOLALITY?

Calculating molality is quite simple, and one needs to figure out the mass of solute and the solvent in the solution. This property is intensive and is entirely independent of the measured amount. Molality, or the concentration, always remains constant.  

![Molality](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1RPJCZCfc1zppXhfew7fgJ/7fc04b42f2ff7ba2ca5c9319f2372e68/Molality.png)
[Source](https://studylib.net/doc/8553708/molality-another-unit-of-concentration-that-can-be-used-f...)

## CONCLUSION:

1. Molality is a property of any solution, defined as the moles of any given solute present per kilogram of solvent.
2. The SI unit of molality is expressed as mol/kg, or it can be termed as moles solute per kilogram of solvent. 
3. To calculate the molality, one needs to figure out the solute's mass and the solvent in the solution.

### FAQs:

__1. What is molality in chemistry?__

Molality is a property of any solution, which can be termed the moles of any given solute present per kilogram of solvent.

__2. What is an example of molality?__

An example would be one molal NaOH stands for 1 mole of NaOH in 1kg water. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Molality__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and engage with other students like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES: 
1. Molality: https://byjus.com/chemistry/molality/. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
2. Molality: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/molality/. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
3. Molality: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/molality/lesson/Molality-CHEM/. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.


Molality can be understood as the total number of moles of a solute contained in a kilogram of a solvent. It is also termed as a molal concentration.  


Molality Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

We have learned that water boils at 100°C all of the time; however, this is not entirely true. The water temperature when it boils varies based on where you are and what you add to it. The addition of salt to water is one such example. In our cooking, salt is a fantastic element. It enhances the flavor of our dish and increases the boiling point of water. This is an example of the elevation of the boiling point of a liquid. The boiling point rises with the amount of salt added because it is a colligative feature dependent on the number of particles generated in the liquid. We will discuss boiling point elevation and freezing point depression in this article.

![Boiling-point](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/nPn4d0Biw1uKw6EtrPHWN/3a3bc984e6b049451fe9e628f0218763/Boiling-point.jpg)
[Source](https://studiousguy.com/boiling-point-examples-in-everyday-life/)

### COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 

Colligative properties in chemistry are qualities of liquids determined by the proportion of solute to solvent particles in a solution, rather than the character of the chemical species present.

### BOILING POINT ELEVATION 

Boiling point elevation occurs when the boiling point of a solution exceeds the boiling point of a pure solvent. The addition of solute to a solvent causes the vapor pressure of the solution to drop below that of the pure solvent, causing the solution's boiling point to rise above that of the pure solvent. It's a colligative property, which means it's determined by the number of particles in a solution rather than the kind or weight of those particles. The most typical application of this phenomenon is the above-discussed example, the addition of salt to the water to raise the boiling point. The formula for boiling point elevation is:

![Boiling Point Elevation](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6hJ7RuuztbnxWKQ7Sxdj2y/935814eca1076a331de973541d9c8237/21580.jpg)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-bd/content/concept/colligative-properties-elevation-of-boiling-point-203995/)

### FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION 

If we add a solute to a solvent, a few molecules occupy space on the liquid's surface. Solvent molecules have to be available at the solution's surface to evaporate, as we all know. Because the existence of solute molecules at the surface reduces the surface area available to solvent molecules, the solvent vaporization rate is reduced. As a result, adding solute molecules lowers the vapor pressure of the solution, which decreases the freezing point of a solution, which is referred to as "freezing point depression." It is the difference in temperature between the freezing points of the pure solvent and the solution. It's a colligative quality seen in solutions formed by the addition of solute molecules. The formula for freezing point depression is: 

![Freezing-point-depression-formula](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/Nu7viYT0g25YQXqleFP8j/9c61b3f28f77ed4943892821f918c051/Freezing-point-depression-formula.png)
[Source](https://studiousguy.com/boiling-point-examples-in-everyday-life/) 

## CONCLUSION 

- Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are colligative properties of a solution. 
- The amount by which the boiling point rises on the addition of a solute may be computed using the boiling point elevation constant and the molality of the solution.
- Using the Freezing point depression constant and the molality of the solution, the amount by which the decrease in freezing point decreases may be computed.

### FAQs 

__1. How do you calculate boiling-point elevation?__

The following is a simple equation for determining the elevation of a solution's boiling point: 
                    mKb = ΔT ( elevation in boiling-point)

__2. What is the formula for boiling point elevation and freezing point depression?__

The formula for boiling point elevation is mKb = ΔTb

The formula for Freezing point depression is mKf = ΔTf

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and engage with other students like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Colligative Properties and Raoult's Law: https://study.com/academy/lesson/colligative-properties-and-raoults-law.html. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.
2. Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/boiling-point-elevation/enrichment/Boiling-Point-Elevation-and-Freezing-Point-depression-Overview/. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.


Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point depression are two crucial colligative properties of solutions.
  

Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

When we dissolve a soluble solute in a solvent, the molecules of the solute move apart and become surrounded by the solvent molecules before entering into a solution. We can ensure complete solubility only when the intermolecular forces of solute and solvent are similar. 

There are some ionic solutes that separate to form cations and anions when dissolved. This imparts an electric nature to the solution, and it starts behaving like a battery when supplied with an anode and cathode.

### EFFECT OF SOLUTE ON THE SOLVENT

A solute is the substance that dissolves completely in another substance known as a solvent. When we add a solute to the solvent, it alters general properties of the solvent such as its freezing or boiling point.

These changes in property are respectively called freezing point depression and boiling point elevation. We know that the freezing point of pure water is 0°C. If you add salt to the water, you’ll notice that when allowing the water to freeze, it forms ice at a temperature lower than 0°C. Similarly, the water boils at a temperature higher than 100°C. 

### FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

![Freezing Point Depression](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3VedhcLlZfNa4ik3OZItEm/39ce6b162256beef8600d826e7b3f9bc/f-d_3ba49533628f5df47fc2200be81c69b2c2ff1dec3ccd786f561bd240_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/freezing-point-depression/lesson/Properties-of-Solutions-MS-PS/)

As discussed earlier, the boiling and freezing points of a solution change when we add a solute to it. This is why freshwater lakes freeze at 0°C, while the ocean water freezing point is -2.2°C. 

We apply the principle of freezing point depression to melt ice during winters and clear roads. By adding salt over ice, we expedite the melting process. Similarly, those living in extremely cold conditions put a certain liquid known as antifreeze in their radiator to keep the engine running. The antifreeze lowers the temperature of the liquid present in the radiator. 

As a result, the liquid doesn't freeze when the temperature drops to 0°C. Some antifreeze liquids don't allow the liquid to freeze even when the temperature goes below -37°C. 

### BOILING POINT ELEVATION 

The property of boiling elevation has its advantages in certain situations. For example, people add salt to meat to cook it perfectly at higher temperatures. People who live in hot, dry climates experience extreme heat, and when they run their vehicle in such conditions, the temperature of the liquid in the engine rises above 100°C and starts boiling. This damages the engine and leads to a breakdown. Adding antifreeze helps with this too by ensuring that the liquid in the engine doesn't boil at 100°C and keeps the engine running, even when the temperature goes beyond 129°C. 

## CONCLUSION

- When a solute comes in contact with a solvent, it alters the general properties of the solvent.
- The observable change in property is that the freezing point of the solvent goes down, and the boiling point increases. These phenomena are known as freezing point depression and boiling point elevation, respectively.
- Freezing point depression is also why freshwater lakes freeze at 0°C while the seas and the oceans freeze at -2.2°C.

### FAQs

__1. What is the relationship between solutes and solvents?__

A solute alters the general properties of the solvent when it interacts with the solvent.

__2. What are the effects of solute on a solution?__

A solute generally lowers the freezing point of the solution or raises its boiling point. The phenomenon is termed freezing point depression and boiling point elevation, respectively. This is why the ocean freezing point is -2.2 degrees Celsius. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Properties of Solutions__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES: 

1. Properties of Solutions: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/freezing-point-depression/lesson/Properties-of-Solutions-MS-PS/. Accessed 5th March 2022.
2. Properties of Solutions: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_-_The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/13%3A_Properties_of_Solutions.Accessed 5th March 2022.


How do solutes affect the properties of solvents? By lowering the freezing point and increasing their boiling point. 


Different Properties of Solutions Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Did you know that water bodies like rivers, groundwater, and hot springs have a high amount of mineral deposits? Some of the minerals are harmful, and some are useful, but excess amounts of all minerals are harmful to our bodies. 

Earlier, having high mineral content in the water was considered therapeutic and good for health. But, through various experiments, it is observed that if the body is unable to dissolve the high mineral content, then it is not good for the body.   

### WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SOLUBLE MINERAL?

Soluble minerals are those minerals that can be dissolved in a solvent and form mineral salts. The solvent is mainly water or other aqueous solutions. Many minerals are not soluble in water but are soluble in other mediums. The minerals which form their salts after dissolving in solution form different mineral ions.   
![Solubility of minerals](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/My7rIYisy2gHoqzWxeFQP/8c9a2d99a4d5725e77e953a63d8d0073/Solubility_minerals.jpg)
[Source](http://www.mineraltown.com/infocoleccionar/cleaning_minerals/cleaning_minerals.htm)

### SOLUBLE SALTS DEFINITION

Minerals that dissolve in water form salts. The soluble salts are ionic compounds that dissociate their components during their exchange with a solvent such that it creates a solution with a concentration of at least 0.1 moles per liter at room temperature. They arise from acidic reactions.

### WHEN DOES SOLUBILITY DEPEND ON pH?

For ionic compounds comprising basic anions, solubility increases as the pH of the solution is decreased. For ionic compounds that contain anions of negligible or insignificant basicity, such as the conjugate bases of strong acids, solubility is unaffected by changes in pH.

### FORMULA AND EXAMPLE PROBLEM

![Solubility](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3x4hmnhWyiSkfQE98wocc2/488b07a2ae19bf4951a93f1285d479e5/main-qimg-5e2c560d7d55ade9a5868b678ff88352-lq)
[Source](https://www.quora.com/How-does-KSP-determine-the-solubility-and-direction-of-a-chemical-reaction)

The formula of solubility

 Kₛₚ = [A+]ᵃ [B-]ᵇ

where,

            Kₛₚ = Solubility product constant
            A+ =  Cation in an aqueous solution
            B- = Anion in aqueous solution

Write the solubility product constant expression for equilibrium in a saturated solution of iron(III) hydroxide.

Fe(OH)₃ (s) → Fe₃ (aq) + 3 OH–(aq)

Solution:

Solids do not contribute to mass action expressions, so the solubility product constant is

Kₛₚ = [Fe³]ₑ[OH–]ₑ³

### FAQs: 

__1. Are minerals soluble in water?__

Water is a solvent, and it has the ability to dissolve minerals from the rocks with which it comes in touch. The most common dissolved mineral substances are calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, sulfate, and bicarbonate.

__2. Are minerals classified by solubility?__

No, minerals are classified based on their crystal form or chemical compositions. 

__3. What are the 3 types of solubility?__

On the basis of the concentration of solute dissolved in the solvent, the solubility can be classified into three types:

- Highly Soluble
- Sparingly Soluble
- Insoluble 

__4. What is the meaning of soluble minerals?__

Soluble minerals are those minerals that can be dissolved in a solvent and form mineral salts. The solvent is mainly water or other aqueous solutions. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Solubility__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:
1. Hot Springs and Mineral Waters: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/solubility/rwa/Hot-Springs-and-Mineral-Waters/. Accessed 7th March 2022.
2. Acid-Base Equilibrium: https://www.chm.uri.edu/weuler/chm112/oldchap16answers.html. Accessed 7th March 2022.


The number of salts that are dissolved in water per unit volume of the salt is known as the solubility of the minerals. 


Solubility Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

What is precipitation?

Precipitation is a chemical reaction that is known to occur within an aqueous solution when two ions bond together, forming an insoluble salt. For example, two solutions that contain different salts come in contact, resulting in the formation of an anion/cation pair. An insoluble salt is then formed, which then precipitates out of the solution. To properly make predictions regarding precipitation reactions, knowing all the solubility rules and net ionic equations is necessary, and this guide will help you learn just that!

![precipitation-reaction](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3Mk9ZXBLHzSiDFW94YwXfj/7de8dd48e24edf75d028c17732fc38f0/precipitation-reaction.jpg)
[Source](http://classnotes123.com/what-do-you-mean-by-a-precipitation-reaction-explain-by-giving-examples/)

### WHAT IS SOLUBILITY?

![Precipitation reaction](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1VAmV67Bpf8t5Geut31rxW/5c4d783956174043f0aa3638abd5874a/precipitation_reactions.jpg)
[Source](https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Main_Group_Reactions/Reactions_in_Aqueous_Solutions/Precipitation_Reactions#:~:text=If%20the%20rules%20state%20that,then%20no%20precipitation%20reaction%20occurs)

Solubility of any gaseous, liquid, or solid substance is its ability to dissolve in the solvent and form a solution. 

- What does solubility primarily depend on? It depends on the solvent used and the temperature alongside pressure. 
- How is solubility measured? It is measured using the concentration of the given saturated solution. A solution can be considered a saturated solution when even after adding solute, the concentration of the solution does not increase anymore. 

The degree of solubility usually depends, as mentioned before, on the substance, which could range from being infinitely soluble like ethanol in water or even poorly soluble like silver chloride in water. Under some specific situations, the equilibrium solubility can also be exceeded, resulting in a supersaturated solution.

However, remember, solubility never depends on the particle size; even really large particles can eventually dissolve!

### FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY

- __Temperature:__ The solubility of any solute depends on the temperature. For solids that dissolve in liquid, the solubility changes with changing temperature. However, with gasses, solubility decreases with an increase in temperature.

![solubility curve](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4ebNto4lpJzgaIkpVD182M/fc49684865b79ee35207960bc19cb5a7/solubility_curve.jpg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/precipitation-reactions/)

- __Pressure:__ Pressure has very little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids but has a drastic effect on the gaseous solutes. This is very much visible when you open a soda bottle and experience a hissing sound which happens because the content has been under pressure to ensure the soda stays carbonated. 

- __Polarity:__ A solute would dissolve best in a solvent with a similar chemical structure. An example would be sugar which is a polar solute, and it dissolves exceptionally well in polar water; however, it remains insoluble in non-polar solvents like benzene. 

### SOLUBILITY RULES AND PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

- Alkali metal compounds are soluble.
- Ammonium (NH₄) is considered soluble.
- Nitrates, perchlorates, and chlorates are soluble.
- Most hydroxides are considered insoluble, exceptions would be alkali metal hydroxides, and Ba(OH)₂.Ca(OH)₂ are slightly soluble.
- Most bromides, iodides, and chlorides are soluble; exceptions are ones containing Ag⁺, Hg₂²⁺, Pb²⁺.  
- Carbonates, sulfides, and phosphates are insoluble. 

## CONCLUSION

- Precipitation reaction occurs when cations and anions in an aqueous solution combine to form an insoluble ionic solid termed precipitate. 
- To determine a precipitate, one must know the solubility rules.
- Solubility depends on temperature, pressure, and polarity.

### FAQs

__1. How do you know if a reaction is precipitating?__

One must know the solubility rules to determine whether the reaction is precipitation or not.

__2. How do you find the precipitate in a formula?__

You can find precipitate in a formula by observing the solubility rules.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Precipitate And Solubility Rules__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES: 

1. Precipitation Reaction: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/precipitation-reactions/.Accessed 10th March 2022.
2. Precipitations Reactions: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Main_Group_Reactions/Reactions_in_Aqueous_Solutions/Precipitation_Reactions#:~:text=If%20the%20rules%20state%20that,then%20no%20precipitation%20reaction%20occurs.Accessed 10th March 2022.


Precipitation rules tell us how precipitation reactions transform ions into insoluble salt in aqueous solutions. Learn more by reading below.


Precipitates And Solubility Rules Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Jacobus Henricus van’t Hoff, Jr. was a Dutch chemist who explained why some chemical solutes undergo association or dissociation in a solution resulting in an abnormal molar mass and changes in colligative properties. 

Typically, the molar mass of a solution is calculated by dividing its total mass by the moles of each substance dissolved within it. Sometimes, when we measure molar mass theoretically through the solution’s colligative properties, it gives a different value than when the value of molar mass is obtained experimentally. 

This phenomenon is termed abnormal molar mass. The colligative properties of a solution depend on the ratio of solute molecules to solvent molecules and include osmotic pressure, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, and relative lowering of vapor pressure. 

### VAN’T HOFF FACTOR 

The van’t Hoff Factor is used to measure the effect of solute molecules on the colligative properties of the solution. Colligative properties such as boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure, and relative lowering of vapor pressure are proportional to the concentration of solute in the solution. We can find the van’t Hoff factor using the following equation:

![Vant Hoff Factor](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3apJnc9ldQdy8axQ4hGrg8/2e6be34b7260871923816a6efc9321c0/Vant_Hoff_Factor.png)
[Source](https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Van_%27t_Hoff_factor)

We can predict a general value of the van’t Hoff constant of a solution based on whether it’s a nonelectrolyte or electrolyte. 

Because nonelectrolytes dissolve but do not dissociate in water, the van’t Hoff constant for a nonelectrolyte solution is always 1. Let’s take a look at why this occurs using sucrose as an example. The chemical equation for the dissolution of sucrose in water is as follows:

sucrose (s) → sucrose (aq)

Here we see that a molecule of sucrose remains intact when dissolved, meaning that the solute particles do not dissociate into ions. Thus, α = and n = 0. If we plug this into the van’t Hoff equation, we find:

i = 1 + α(n – 1)

i = 1 + 0(0-1)

i = 1

Strong electrolytes dissociate completely when dissolved in water. Thus, their van’t Hoff constant is always greater than 1 and equal to the number of ions within the solution. Let’s use sodium chloride (NaCl) as an example. The chemical equation for the dissolution of sodium chloride in water is as follows:

NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl– (aq); 

Here, we can see that one NaCl molecule dissociates into one sodium ion and one chloride ion when dissolved in water. Thus, α = 1 and n = 2. When we plug this into the van’t Hoff equation, we find:

i = 1 + α(n – 1)

i = 1 + 0(0-1)

i = 1

i = 2 

Sugar is a complex solute and does not dissociate when dissolved, so it won’t change the colligative properties of the solution. In the case of an ionic solute compound like salt, each molecule dissociates into two ions, and as a result the colligative properties of the solution do experience change.

Other forms of the van’t Hoff factor equation include:

i = observed colligative property/ theatrical colligative property

i = normal molar mass/ observed molar mass

i = an actual number of solute particles in the solution/ Expected number of solute particles in the solution.

## CONCLUSION
- Some solutes, like ionic solute compounds, undergo association or dissociation when they come in contact with the solvent.
- Association or dissociation of solute molecules results in a change of colligative properties of the solution and abnormal molar mass.
- The colligative properties of a solution are boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure, and relative lowering of vapor pressure. 
- Abnormal molar mass is the difference in molar mass obtained theoretically and the molar mass obtained experimentally. 
- The van’t Hoff factor is denoted by the symbol ‘i’, which is also known as the van’t Hoff constant. 
- The van’t Hoff factor is calculated by dividing the actual concentration of the particles produced by the concentration of solute by the concentration calculated from its molecular mass.

### FAQs

__1. How do you find the ionization factor?__

By dividing the actual concentration of the particles produced by the concentration of solute by the concentration calculated from its molecular mass.

__2. What is the van’t Hoff factor? What is the significance of it?__

van’t Hoff factor denotes the measurement of change in colligative properties of a solution when it comes in contact with a solute. It is used to explain the moral mass abnormality and change in colligative properties. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Van't Hoff Factor__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES 
1. Van’t Hoff Factor: https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/vant-hoff-factor.Accessed 8th March 2022. 
2. Van’t Hoff Factor Example: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/electrolytes-and-colligative-properties/enrichment/Vant-Hoff-Factor-Example-1/. Accessed 8th March 2022.


Ionization factor or Van’t Hoff factor is the change in colligative properties of the solution due to association or dissociation of solute molecules. 


Ionization Factor Study Guide

# Introduction

Have you ever made chocolate milk with too much syrup? Some of the extra remains undissolved at the bottom of the glass. That’s because the milk has become a __saturated solution__, a solution containing the maximum concentration of one or more dissolved solutes in a solvent. In this case, the syrup would be the solute, and the milk the solvent. In a saturated solution, additional solutes won't dissolve (just like the extra chocolate syrup).

__Unsaturated solutions__ contain a smaller amount of solute than what can dissolve, leaving no remainder. 

- If you were to add more solute to an unsaturated solution, it would dissolve into the solvent because the solution has not yet reached saturation. 
- Adding just a teaspoon of chocolate syrup to a glass of milk would produce an unsaturated solution because the solute concentration is below the capacity of the solvent to dissolve.

__Supersaturated solutions__ contain more than the maximum amount of dissolved solute than the solution is able to dissolve at a given temperature.

- Supersaturated solutions remain solvated even when they are cooled with additional solids. 
- Sodium acetate in water, is an example of a  supersaturated solution. 
- Solvents that can be heated safely, like water, are often used in supersaturated solutions.

## TYPES OF SATURATION

## 1.  SATURATED SOLUTION

- In a saturated solution, there is so much solute present that if more were added, it would not dissolve. 
- A solution is saturated when the rates of solubility and crystallization are equal and dynamic equilibrium is reached. 

See the image below to visualize what a saturated solution looks like.

![saturated](//assets.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5nk8BPa8D9BTxJQq5rChJG/89bda0c77d0526666f8497de09d0f9ff/saturated_solution.bmp)
[Source](https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Solubilty/Types_of_Saturation)

- The above image shows the beginning of the immersion interaction, where the strong solute begins dissolving (as represented by the red arrows). 
- A significant portion of strong solute (as evidenced by the blue arrows in the following measurement glass in  the second figure) has broken down, but not entirely, since the crystallization process has not yet been completed. 
- Some components of dissolvable solute are undissolved in the last container. 
- During this interaction, the outlay of crystallization is equal to the rate of disintegration (see the equal size of the red and blue arrows), resulting in a fully saturated solution.

## 2. UNSATURATED SOLUTION

- A solution with less solute than the solution is capable of dissolving is called an unsaturated solution. 
- Solutes in an unsaturated solution dissolve completely, leaving no remaining substrates. 

See the image below to visualize an unsaturated solution.

![unsaturated](//assets.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/hXelCeoX6tMpFJp3ZwN8w/815b6ab45c0df58d81eac91d72b9408e/unsaturated_solution.bmp)
[Source](https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Solubilty/Types_of_Saturation)

- The first figure shows the beginning of the interaction in which a strong solute is starting to dissolve. 
- The second figure shows that the solute has dissolved significantly and that the disintegration rate is greater than the crystallization rate, as is depicted by the size difference between the red and blue arrows. 
- Total dissolution of the solute is reached in the third container.

## 3. SUPERSATURATED 

- A supersaturated solutions contain more than the maximum amount of dissolved solute than the solution is able to dissolve at a given temperature. 
- A supersaturated solution can remain in a state of complete dissolution when cooled, and the crystallization of the excess solute can be instigated by the addition of a solute crystal called a seed crystal. 
- 
Let’s take a look at a supersaturated solution in the image below.

![supersaturated ](//assets.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4JgepC4z4GkPKxwxiDuHKB/1401f14c5945877bf9876a06273f577a/supersaturated_solution.bmp)
[Source](https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Solubilty/Types_of_Saturation)

- The first image shows a container with a large amount of solute that has started to dissolve (red arrows). 
- In the second image, the rate of dissolution has become less than the pace of disintegration (blue arrows). 
- In the last image, the rate of dissolution is far lesser than the rate of crystallization, resulting in a solid precipitate that does not dissolve.

## Mass Percent
Mass percent expresses the concentration of a solution when both the mass of the solute and solution are given. To find mass percent, use the following formula:

__Mass % = msolute/msolution x 100%__

Where msolute = mass of solute

msolution = mass solution

Let’s try out a practice problem with a supersaturated solution example:

1. What is the mass percent of sodium hydroxide in a solution that is made by dissolving 8.00g NaOH in 50.00g H2O?

Knowns: 
msolute = 8.00g NaOH

and msolution = 50.0g H2O

Solving for mass percent

Mass % = msolute/msolution x 100%

Mass % = (8.00g)/(8.00g + 50.00g) x 100%

Mass % = (8.00g)/(58.00g) x 100%

Mass % = = 13.8% NaOH solution.

## FACTORS AFFECTING SATURATION
- With the exception of compounds containing anions, the solubilities of ionic solutions increase as the temperature rises.
- A finely divided solid is more soluble because it has a higher surface area to volume ratio.
- Contrary to the rate of solubility, which is largely influenced by temperature, the rate of crystallization is largely influenced by the concentration of the solute on the surface of the seed crystal.
- The concentration of the solute at the surface of a still solution increases crystallization. Stirring the solution prevents the build-up and maximizes the net dissolution rate.
- A net dissolving rate is calculated by subtracting the dissolving rate from the crystallization rate.

# CONCLUSION
- There are three types of solution saturation: saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated.
- A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum concentration of one or more dissolved solutes in a solvent
- An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solution is capable of dissolving. 
- Supersaturated solutions contain more dissolved solute than saturated solutions and dissolves more solute than the solution has the capacity to at a given temperature. 

## FAQs

__1. What is meant by supersaturated solutions?__

A solution that contains more solute than the solvent is capable of dissolving. It has more undissolved solute than the saturated solution that tends to crystallize and precipitate with the help of a seed crystal. 

__2. How do you know if a solution is supersaturated?__

If the solution is supersaturated, crystals will very quickly form around the solute you've added.

__3. What are the examples of supersaturated solutions?__

The supersaturated solution contains more dissolved substances than a saturated solution. For example, 40g NaCl in 100ml H2O. The additional 4.0g NaCl remains undissolved.

__4. What are the saturated and supersaturated solutions?__

The solution obtained by dissolving the maximum amount of solute at a given temperature is known as a saturated solution. A solution that contains more amount of solute than the required to saturate is known as a supersaturated solution.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated Solutions!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎* 

## REFERENCE  
1. Types of Saturation: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Equilibria/Solubilty/Types_of_Saturation.Accessed 26th March 2022.
2. Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated Solutions: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/supersaturated-solutions/enrichment/Saturated-Unsaturated-Supersaturated-Overview/.Accessed 26th March 2022

A solution can reach a state of saturation: the point at which a solution of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance! Let's learn more in this guide.

Saturations -  Saturated, Unsaturated, Supersaturated Study Guide

# Introduction

The precipitate of a white solid, silver chloride, is produced when aqueous silver nitrate is introduced to a solution containing potassium chloride. When two soluble salt solutions are mixed, a __precipitation process__ occurs, resulting in the production of an insoluble salt. The precipitate is the __insoluble salt__ that separates from the solution. But what if we wanted to understand precisely how much precipitate we will obtain from the reaction? In precipitation reactions, __normality__ is used to calculate the number of ions that are expected to precipitate.

![silver nitrate](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/63n7pWblFYkBwth8RMt9BQ/0bcd74acfa4cac47bdc4e2676411aabe/225)
[Source](https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/705139/view/silver-chloride-precipitate)

## WHAT IS NORMALITY IN CHEMISTRY?
- Measurement of concentration corresponding to the __gram equivalent weight per liter__ of solution is called normality. 
- The reactive capacity of a chemical is measured in grams equivalent weight.
- The normality of a solution is determined by the involvement of the solute in the reaction. 
- __N, eq/L, and meq/L__ are standard units of normality.
- The corresponding concentration of a solution is also termed normality.
![ormality](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6jaoFDkbhJi4t6OQL4vywh/11cfbd01b6fe9220199e35649466df08/how-to-calculate-normality-609580final2-0d5efa5a961f4fa0a7efc780921faee1.png)
[Source](https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-calculate-normality-609580)

## NORMALITY FORMULA
__Normality__ = Number of gram equivalents × (volume of solution in litres)-1

__Number of gram equivalents__ = weight of solute × (Equivalent weight of solute)-1

__N__ = Molarity × Molar mass × (Equivalent mass)-1

__N__ = Molarity × Basicity = Molarity × Acidity

## HOW TO CALCULATE NORMALITY
- Gathering information regarding the equivalent weight of the reactive substance or the solute is the first strategy that students may use.
- The number of gram equivalents of the solute is calculated in the second phase.
- The volume is measured in liters.
- Finally, using the formula and changing the values, normality is computed.

## USES OF NORMALITY
- In acid-base chemical reactions, __establishing concentrations__. Normality, for example, is used to show the quantities of hydronium ions (H3O ) or hydroxide ions (OH–) in a solution.
- In precipitation reactions, normality is used to calculate the __number of ions that are expected to precipitate__ in a given reaction.
- It's utilized in redox processes to determine how many __electrons a reducing or oxidizing__ substance can take or contribute.

# Conclusion 
- Measurement of concentration corresponding to the gram equivalent weight per liter of solution is called normality.
- N, eq/L, and meq/L are standard units of normality.
- N = Molarity × Molar mass × (Equivalent mass)-1

## FAQs: 

__1. What is normality in chemistry, for example?__

A normal is one gram of a solute equivalent per liter of solution. Because hydrochloric acid is a powerful acid that fully dissociates in water, a 1 N HCl solution will indeed be 1 N for H or Cl- ions in acid-base interactions.

__2. What is the difference between molarity and normality?__

The major distinction between molarity and normalcy is that molarity refers to the number of moles of a chemical existing in a mixture, whereas normality refers to the number of gram equivalents of a compound present in a combination.

__3.  Why do we use normality?__

In precipitation reactions, normality is used to calculate the number of ions that are expected to precipitate in a given reaction. It's utilized in redox processes to figure out how many electrons a reducing or oxidizing substance can take or contribute.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Normality!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES
1. Normality: https://byjus.com/ accessed 12 march 2022
2. How to Calculate Normality: https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-calculate-normality-609580 accessed 12 march 2022
3. Definition of Normality: https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-normality-in-chemistry-605419 accessed 12 march 2022

The normality (in chemistry) of a solution is determined by the involvement of the solute in the reaction.


Normality Study Guide

# Introduction
Have you ever wondered what happens to sugar when we mix sugar into the water? Why does it disappear? But as we keep on mixing sugar to the same solution, it ceases to disappear? What if we heat it further?
Let’s find answers to all the questions!

## SOLUBILITY
Solubility is defined as the __maximum amount of substance__ that can be dissolved in a solvent at some particular temperature.

![sugar](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/65I5No5dTvgTOc9iTzUU1F/42c83429de0620a5792fc2c6114e7b2e/mixing-illustration.jpg)
[Source](http://scientificargumentation.stanford.edu/assessments/mixing-sugar-and-water/)

- In this picture, as you can see, after mixing sugar, it disappeared as it has been dissolved. 
- This means that sugar is soluble in water. 
- Do you know that 1800 grams of sugar can be dissolved in 1 L of water at 25℃? This means these numbers define the __solubility__ of sugar in water.
- But what happens when we keep on dissolving sugar into the water?
- No more sugar can be dissolved after a certain point as now it becomes a __saturated solution__. 

## WHAT IS A SATURATED SOLUTION?
- A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved any further without increasing the temperature of the solution is a saturated solution.
-  When we keep on adding sugar to water, there comes the point where no more sugar can be dissolved as it starts setting at the bottom of the container. 
- This happens because the __rate of dissolution becomes equal to the rate of crystallization__.

![saturated](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1FIDtmlB2yNx2x9wJFsnK0/4da93aac4485bbdda2274d6696fcf334/saltsolution.jpg)
[Source](https://water.mecc.edu/courses/ENV211/lesson8_2.htm)

But can we dissolve the sugar that has been settled at the bottom of the container?
Yes! But how?

## FACTOR AFFECTING THE SOLUBILITY

__Temperature affects the solubility of a substance in a solvent.__

On increasing temperature, the solubility of solid substances __increases__ because energy is required to break the bonds in solid, and when that energy is supplied in the __form of heat__, bonds break and solubility increases. 

![solubility](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1FAkooqqEsXSDBgdizoSlq/c4d88b1e505dd77c33090af185ccdb99/image_2019-07-11_14_37_27.999413_00_00)
[Source](https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/story/amp/solubility-solid-in-liquid-73227/)

So, when no more sugar can be dissolved in a container, that is when the saturated solution is formed; just __heat the solution__ to dissolve the sugar.

But can we do the same for gases? Does the solubility of gases increase by increasing the temperature of the solution?
No! 

## SOLUBILITY OF GASES
- Increasing the temperature __increases the kinetic energy__ of gases. 
- The gas molecules will try to escape the liquid as intermolecular forces between gas molecules will break in which they are dissolved, which means __solubility will decrease__. 
- This is exactly the opposite of the dissolution of solids in liquid. 

![gases](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5e9OC0KFmIs3i4u1dXb2jP/3ab910adaebf7b3e5101ec5cd7a350f9/f-d_5261bbcdef6e6dd07f389d246a34873a7e1512bffa1046e6ef769e3c_IMAGE_IMAGE.1)
[Source](https://www.saddlespace.org/whittakerm/science/cms_page/view/7795249)

# CONCLUSION
- Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of substance that can be dissolved in a solvent at some particular temperature.
- Solubility increases by increasing the temperature in the case of solids, but the trend is the opposite for gases.

## FAQs

__1. What is solubility?__

Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of substance that can be dissolved in a solvent at some particular temperature.

__2. What is a saturated solution?__

A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved any further without increasing the temperature of the solution is a saturated solution.

__3. Does increasing the temperature increase the solubility of a solid substance?__

Yes, as on the increasing temperature, the solubility of solid substances increases because energy is required to break the bonds in solid and thus solubility increases.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Rate of Dissolving__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎*

## SOURCES
1. Rate of Dissolving: https://www.ck12.org/assessment/tools/geometry-tool/plix.html?eId=SCI.CHE.754&questionId=53d7e8538e0e087ba8b8e938&artifactID=1886265&conceptCollectionHandle=chemistry-::-rate-of-dissolving&collectionCreatorID=3&plix_redirect=1.Accessed 10th March 2022.
2. How Much Sugar Can Water Dissolve: https://lisbdn`et.com/how-much-sugar-will-dissolve-in-1000-g-of-water-at-90ac/#:~:text=ground%20water%20level-,How%20much%20sugar%20can%20water%20dissolve%3F,is%20said%20to%20be%20saturated.Accessed 10th March 2022.
3. General Solubility of Gases: https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/generally-solubility-of-gases-in-liquids-is-decreases-as-increasing-temperature-give-reason/.Accessed 10th March 2022


Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of substance that can be dissolved in a solvent at some particular temperature.

Rate of Dissolving: Dissolving Sugar Study Guide

# Introduction
Have you seen the behavior of different solutions? Has it ever struck you how these solutions behave like this? 

Well, all the things that you see around you happen due to some reason. If you check out the electrolytic solution, there are two rods present — one rod attracts the negative ions, and another attracts the positive ions. This occurred because there is an electromagnetic force generated within the solution.

Hence, to find out the behavior and different factors affecting it, the __Van’t Hoff factor__ is used. Now, what is Van’t Hoff's factor?

## VAN’T HOFF FACTOR

The Van't Hoff factor can be defined as the __ratio between colligative property and theoretical concentrations__. It is the ratio of two concentrations of particles that are formed when dissolved in a solvent by mass. It is denoted by “i”.

For an example of the Van’t Hoff factor, when you dissolve plain particles in water, the Van’t Hoff Factor, i is 1. But if you dissolve an ionic particle or compound in water, the Van't Hoff factor becomes equal to the total amount of ions present in the solution.

Hence, the greater the number of charges present, the greater will be the Van’t Hoff factor.

![hoff](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/12h9a0dDvu0X36fTHidhYL/ed8d23877caad7385b7bcb861b736e37/vant-hoff-factor-1024x683.jpg)
[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/the-vant-hoff-factor/)

## VAN’T HOFF FACTOR EQUATION

The formula of Van’t Hoff factor is:
__i = 𝞪n+(1 - 𝞪)__

Where, 
__i__ = Van’t Hoff Factor
__𝞪__ = Degree of dissociation
__n__ = number of ions formed from one formula substance of the entity 

## ASSOCIATION & DISSOCIATION

__Association__ is the union of two or more particles to form one unit. An example of the association of two particles is __water__; as it is the biggest associated compound, it can associate with almost all particles as things will get dissolved into it.

On the other hand, __dissociation__ refers to the separation of a molecule into numerous ionic units. For example, __sodium chloride__ (NaCl), when dissolved in water, separates into Na and Cl– ions.

## FAQS: 

__1. How do you find the ionization factor?__

Ionization factor can be found by using the formula 
i = 𝞪n+(1 - 𝞪)

__2. What is the Van't Hoff factor? What is the significance of it?__

The van’t Hoff factors can be defined as the ratio between the concentration of particles dissolved to the theoretical concentration. The Van't Hoff factor offers an understanding of the effect of solutes on the colligative properties of solutions.

__3. How does Van't Hoff factor relate to ionization?__

Van’t Hoff factor is directly related or proportional to the degree of dissociation of weak electrons. Hence, if the Van’t Hoff factor increases, so do the degree of ionization. 

__4. What do you understand about the degree of ionization?__

The degree of ionization also termed as ionization yield, denotes the proportion of unbiased particles, like the one in gas or aqueous solution, to those that are ionized. For electrolytes, it could be comprehended as a capability of acid or base to ionize itself.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Electrolytes and Colligative Factors!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!😎* 

## SOURCES:
1. Colligative Properties:https://www.ck12.org/section/colligative-properties/.Accessed 7th March 2022. 
2. Solutions of Electrolytes: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_General_Chemistry_(Petrucci_et_al.)/13%3A_Solutions_and_their_Physical_Properties/13.09%3A_Solutions_of_Electrolytes. Accessed 7th March 2022.

Van’t Hoff factor can be defined as the ratio between the concentration of particles obtained when the substance is dissolved to the concentration of that substance when calculated from its mass.

Electrolytes and Colligative Factors Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 
Every system needs a measuring unit; for example, when your teacher asks you to draw a line of 5 units, you will ask her the scale to draw a line of 5 m or 5 cm or any other unit. Similarly, you will need to know the concentration of substances mixed with a solvent to get the desired solution. Hence, the invention of molarity took place.

![molarity](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4zcntfWT6hSV6LHFcM00wh/8ca1ce3636a2cc16edd16b1be50e230c/molarity.jpg)
[Source](https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/58093/temperature-dependence-of-molarity-and-molality)

### WHAT IS MOLARITY?

Molarity definition in chemistry refers to the number of moles present in a volume of solution in liters. Different elements react together in ratios of the whole number; their volume is expressed in moles. Molarity is the concentration unit and helps find out the concentration of different substances present in the solution. 

### MOLARITY FORMULA

It is straightforward to find out the molarity; you need to know the solute's moles and the solution's volume. The formula of molarity is:

                                        M = n / V

Here,

M = the molality of the solution that is to be calculated

n = the number of moles of the solute 

V = the volume of solution given in terms of liters

![Molarity](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4mQTTntMfdo703w5gfoulM/4a439e65016f77c1491677e1e47963c0/aid3138006-v4-728px-Find-Molarity-Step-1.jpg.webp)
[Source](https://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Molarity)

### EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

__A solution is prepared by bubbling 2.56 grams of hydrochloric acid in water. Here, the volume of the solution is 46.8 mL. Calculate the molarity of the solution.__

__Solution:__

The chemical formula of hydrochloric acid = HCl

The chemical formula for water = H₂O

The molecular weight of HCl = 35.5 × 1, 1 × 1 = 36.5 moles/gram

The molecular weight of H₂O = 1 × 2, 16 × 1 = 18 moles/gram

Given, the mass of hydrochloric acid in the solution = 2.56 g

The number of moles of hydrochloric acid = mass in gm / molecular weight = 2.56 / 36.5 = 7.02 x 10⁻² mole

Now, given the volume of the solution = 46.8 mL

Expressing the volume in terms of liters,

Volume = 46.8 / 1000 = 4.68 x 10⁻² L

∴ molarity of the substance = number of moles of elements/volume of the solution in liters = 7.02 x 10-2 / 4.68 x 10⁻² = 1.5 M

__Ans:__ The molarity of the solution is 1.5 M

### FAQs: 

__1. What is a molar solution? Give an example.__

Ans: The molar solution is the gram molecular weight of the solute used to calculate the molar concentration in liters of the solution. Hence, 1 molar solution (M) will contain 1.0 GMW of a substance dissolved in the solvent to make 1 liter of the solution. For example:
The 1 M solution of NaCl will contain 58.44 g.

__2. How do I calculate molarity?__

Ans: To calculate the molarity of a solution, follow these simple steps:

Step 1: Find out the number of moles of solute present in the solution.

Step 2: Then, find out the volume of the solution in liters.

Step 3: Finally, divide the moles of solute with liters of solution, and you will
get molarity.

__3. What is the molarity of a solution?__

Ans: The molarity of a solution can be defined as the moles of a solute per liter of the solution. In simple words, it is the amount of a substance present in a certain volume of a solution. 

__4. How is molarity used in everyday life?__

Ans: The molarity is used to study the different properties of solutions when subjected to vapor pressure or temperature changes. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Molarity: Definition and Example__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and engage with other students like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES:

1. Calculate Molarity of Solution: https://www.thoughtco.com/calculate-molarity-of-a-solution-606823. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
2. What is Molarity? https://sciencetrends.com/what-is-molarity-with-examples/#:~:text=Molarity%20is%20how%20chemists%20measure,a%20given%20amount%20of%20solution. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.


Molarity (M), or molar concentration, is the concentration of a solution measured as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

