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## INTRODUCTION 

There is nothing as satisfying as perfectly cooked pasta. Everyone knows what ingredients are used for cooking pasta, but is it enough? The perfection of the dish lies in the concentration (what and how much) of the ingredients used. From the beginnings of chemistry to the most complex methods, concentration and its consequences are essential. 

![Mole-Fraction-and-Mole-Percent](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3sxfYTYCw5NPLb8N7TcvF4/4a322f01439348bfb6328d578775c48d/Mole-Fraction-and-Mole-Percent.png)
[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/mole-fraction-formula-and-calculation/)

Concentration is crucial from a conceptual standpoint. It informs you how much you possess and what quantity you have. Without the right concentrations, a chemical reaction that requires specific amounts of reagents may simply not function. Concentration is directly related to determining information such as the amount of heavy metal in freshwater, the amount of insecticide that has run off into a neighboring water source, and the severity of acid rain.

### WHAT IS THE MOLE FRACTION?

The mole fraction is one of the numerous methods for indicating the concentration of a solution. A mole fraction is a concentration unit. The mole fraction, symbolized by "X," determines the relative concentration of solutes and solvents in a solution.

For a mixture of two substances, C  and  D, the mole fraction equation  of each would be written as follows:

Xc = mol C / mol C + mol D

Xd = mol D / mol C + mol D

Mole fractions have no dimensions hence the total of all mole fractions in a combination is always 1.

![Mole fraction](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5HfaxaHEve9DRMXQhBUciL/8c806087cdeb2331fa3a5cfa2b85cecf/Mole_fraction.png)
[Source](http://elife-news.blogspot.com/2019/05/calculate-of-mole-fraction-of-solution.html)

### MOLE FRACTION EXAMPLE

If 0.010 moles of NaCl are dissolved in 100 grams of pure water, compute the mole fraction of NaCl and H₂O.

We know, the molecular weight of water is 18.0153

- Number of moles of water = 100/18.015= 5.56 moles 
- Mole fraction of  NaCl = 0.10/ 5.56 + 0.100 = 0.018 
- Mole fraction of H₂O = 5.56/5.66 = 0.982
- Sum of mole fractions here is 0.982 + 0.018 = 1

In conjunction with Dalton's law of partial pressures, a mole fraction is a helpful number for studying gas mixtures. Think about the following scenario:

A 1.5 atm total pressure is exerted on the container walls by hydrogen and oxygen gas mixture. Find the partial pressure of oxygen and hydrogen in the mixture if the mole fraction of hydrogen is 0.67.

Make a list of the known quantities and devise a strategy for solving the problem.

- Total pressure = 1.5 atm 
- Mole fraction of oxygen = 0.33
- Mole fraction of hydrogen = 0.67
Unknown 

- The partial pressure of oxygen (Po)
- The partial pressure of hydrogen (Ph) 
- Now, multiplying the mole fraction by the total pressure yields the partial pressure.
- Ph = 0.67 × 1.5 = 1 atm  and Po = 0.33 × 1.5 = 0.5 atm 

### PROPERTIES OF MOLE FRACTION

- It is not necessary to know the densities of the states of the elements involved.
- The mole fraction of an ideal gas mixture can be calculated as the ratio of partial pressure to total pressure. This scale is symmetrical.
- A mixture of known mole fractions can be created by measuring the right masses of the elements.

## CONCLUSION: 

- A mole fraction is a concentration unit symbolized by "X."
- Mole fractions have no dimensions hence the total of all mole fractions in a combination is always 1.
- For a mixture of two substances, C  and  D, the mole fraction equation of each would be written as follows:

                         Xc = mol C / mol C + mol D

                         Xd = mol D / mol C + mol D

### FAQs:

__1. What is the mole fraction formula?__

The formula of mole fraction is the ratio of the moles of solute/ solvent to the total moles of solute and solvent. 

__2. What is meant by mole fraction?__

Mole fraction is a concentration unit that determines the relative concentration of solutes and solvents in a solution.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the Mole Fraction! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:
1. Mole Fraction. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/mole-fraction/lesson/Mole-Fraction-CHEM/. Accessed 16 Feb 2022.
2. Concentration Units. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/trident-boundless-chemistry/chapter/concentration-units/. Accessed 16 Feb 2022. 


Calculating the concentration of elements in a reaction can be understood using mole fraction.


Mole Fraction Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the most precious resources on the earth. Though 71% of our planet’s surface is covered by water, only 3% is freshwater, and of that 3%, only 1.2% is safe for human consumption. Water is necessary for a multitude of life-sustaining activities, such as drinking and household needs, recreation, agriculture, industry, and thermoelectricity. Its unusual properties make it integral not only for human activities, but also the biological processes that keep every other living being on the planet alive. Let’s learn about its structure to gain a better understanding of why it’s so important.

## WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF WATER?

![Structure of Water](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2Uz4hFdjYYpslpNbON48Hf/5f660fae2b7377252dcfcfa6c1cd2a3e/f-d_f45c7d78874201970958daf29d7bd7b304d46aedfdc403ae9231b788_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/structure-of-water/lesson/Structure-of-Water-CHEM/) 

A water molecule consists of one oxygen atom bound to two hydrogens by covalent bonds. A covalent bond is characterized by the sharing of one or more electron pairs between two atoms. When a covalent bond is formed between atoms of significantly different electronegativities, it is classified as a polar bond. Because oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, water is considered a polar molecule.

Polar bonds result in an unequal sharing of electrons. The oxygen atom in a water molecule attracts the shared electron pairs to a greater degree and thus acquires a partial negative charge (δ−), while each hydrogen acquires a partial positive charge (δ+). As a result, the H-O-H bond is bent at a 105o angle.

Polar water molecules attract each other by dipole-dipole forces, where the positive end of a molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. Each hydrogen atom on a molecule strongly attracts a lone pair of electrons on an adjacent water molecule. This results in the formation of a hydrogen-hydrogen bond, which is stronger than a dipolar one.

## CONCLUSION

- The chemical formula of water is H₂O.
- In a water molecule, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen are bound together by covalent bonds.
- The shared electrons of each covalent bond are attracted to the oxygen atom to a greater degree because of its stronger electronegative force.
- The tilt of the shared electron results in hydrogen acquiring a positive charge and oxygen acquiring a partial negative charge.
- The partial charges result in a bent shape of the molecule, arranged at a 105° angle. This is the bond angle of water.  
- Polar water molecules attract each other by dipole-dipole forces, where one end of the positive molecule is attracted by the negative end of another polar molecule.
- Each hydrogen atom on a molecule strongly attracts a lone pair of electrons on an adjacent water molecule. This results in the formation of a hydrogen-hydrogen bond.

### FAQs

__1. What kind of bond joins hydrogen to oxygen in a water molecule?__

A polar covalent bond.

__2. Does water have a bond angle of 180°?__

No, a Water molecule is a bond arranged at an angle of 105°.

__3. What is the bond shape of water?__

The bond shape of the water is a bent structure.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Structure Of Water__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES

1. Structure of water: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/structure-of-water/lesson/Structure-of-Water-CHEM/. Accessed 8th March 2022.
2. Structure of Water: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemistry_(CK-12)/15%3A_Water/15.01%3A_Structure_of_Water. Accessed 8th March 2022.

The structure of the water molecule is a covalent bond formed at a 105o water bond angle. 


Structure of Water Study Guide

# Introduction
Just out of curiosity, take a glass of water and blow air into it through a straw. You will notice that as you blow, air bubbles will form inside the water, and then these bubbles eventually rise to the surface of the water and burst. Why do these bubbles move upwards? 
The obvious answer to this is that because the __air inside the bubble is lighter than water__, it rises. 
This very same concept is used in laboratories by scientists whenever they have to __measure the volume or pressure of the gas__ that is formed during a reaction. Let's learn more about this in more detail.

![air bubbles](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/37W7uNk2O5n2ZwbrrKqNZ2/6b930368766f8d6060e650a99297914e/inline_image_preview.jpg)
[Source](https://videohive.net/item/blowing-with-straw-into-glass-of-water/19971884)

## GAS COLLECTION
Throughout chemical processes, gases can occasionally be created. We can learn more about the reaction that took place by collecting and measuring the amounts of gas created, and we can also utilize this as a reactant in another reaction if we collect and measure the volumes of gas produced.

The method for collecting a certain gas is determined by the following factors:

__- Solubility-__ refers to a substance's capacity to dissolve in water

__- Density-__ refers to how "heavy" it is in comparison to air.

The following are three popular ways for collecting a gas sample:

__1. Displacement of Water__

__2. Upwards Delivery__

__3. Downwards Delivery__

## DISPLACEMENT OF WATER
- A jar is filled with water and hung upside-down in a pan of water in this procedure. Rubber tubing is attached to the reaction flask and supplied under the water bottle. 
- The gas escapes through the tubing and displaces the water in the bottle as it is created in the reaction flask. 
- The jar may be sealed with a cap once it has been filled with gas. The gas is not pure since it is gathered above water and is combined with vapor from the evaporation of the water. 
- By eliminating the contribution of water vapor, Dalton's law may be used to compute the quantity of the desired gas.

## UPWARDS DELIVERY
- This approach is used to capture gases that are water soluble and have a __lower density than air__. 
- Cl2, HCl, SO2 are among the gases that may be collected in this manner.

## DOWNWARDS DELIVERY
- This approach is used to capture gases that are water soluble and have a __higher density than air__. 
- One of the gases that may be collected in this manner is NH4.

![gas ](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/58C1xYcTi1wgcDVFwLgQI3/58af2182f184e0d7451bf211a38dcc55/510780_methodsofgascollection_633002.jpg)
[Source](https://edu.rsc.org/experiments/generating-collecting-and-testing-gases/693.article)

# SUMMARY
- The method for collecting a certain gas is determined by the solubility and density of the gas.
- Because gases have such low densities, determining their mass can be challenging. 
- Collecting gas over water and measuring the level of displaced water is a typical approach to assess the amount of gas available; this is performed by inserting a tube into an inverted container, the opening of which would be submerged in a larger container of water.

## FAQs: 

__1. Why is oxygen collected by the downward displacement of water?__

Because oxygen is somewhat heavier than air, it is gathered by the __downward displacement of water__ rather than by air. Air has a vapor density of 14.4, while oxygen has a vapor density of 16. It's also water-soluble to a lesser extent. As a result, it does not collect in the air.

__2. Which gas cannot be collected by displacement of water?__

Gases that dissolve in water are unable to be collected over water. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ethylene, and chlorine are among the examples.

__3.  What are the methods of collecting gases?__

- A gas that is denser than air can be collected by delivering it downward. 
- Carbon dioxide, chlorine, and other gases can be collected using this approach. 
- The delivery tube is simply pointed downwards into a test tube (downward delivery) or upwards into an upside-down volumetric flask (upward delivery). 
- Whether the gas is denser than air (employ downward delivery) or lighter than air (utilize upward delivery) determines the method adopted.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Gas Displacement!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎* 

## SOURCES:
1. Collecting Gases Over Water: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/collecting-gases-over-water/ accessed 16 march 2022
2. Gas Collection by Water Displacement: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/gas-collection-by-water-displacement accessed 16 march 2022


The method for collecting a certain gas is determined by the solubility and density of the gas.

Gas Displacement Study Guide

### Lesson Objectives

- Define Boyle’s law
- Describe the relationship between the pressure, P, of a gas and the volume, V, of its container at a constant amount of gas and temperature
- Determine the pressure or volume of a gas before or after a chemical or thermodynamic process using the equation
- Derive the Boyle’s law equation

---

## Introduction

We all know that getting a shot at the doctor’s office isn’t exactly a fun experience (except for at the end when you get candy and a cool band-aid). What you might not know is that the process of giving a shot is an everyday example of Boyle’s law, which states that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume of space it occupies when temperature and the number of gas particles are held constant. 

![syringe](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/79pFtaxPyJqBrUA55U3QHz/7c9b26feed3ae99c37d0959949712ded/119131-15627219.jpg)

[Source](https://www.medicalexpo.com/prod/retractable-technologies/product-119131-950895.html)

Because the syringe is capped, the amount of gas inside remains constant, as does the temperature of the air surrounding it. When the doctor pulls back the plunger, the volume of the syringe increases, and the pressure decreases. This change in pressure causes the medication to enter the cavity. When the doctor pushes the plunger in to give the shot, the opposite process occurs, as the volume of the syringe decreases while the pressure increases, pushing the medicine out again.

![boyle's law](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3dZUMIllLqSkLi7Uxk5NCO/372ff51c2a29ea3b72c3030c23d63d69/2054720ee0709ddc0f1c43e18fcf9974.jpg)

[Source](https://www.pinterest.com/pin/53480314303853411/)

---

### Boyle's Law

As mentioned before, Boyle’s law states the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to the volume of space it occupies when temperature and the number of gas particles are held constant. Let’s try to visualize this by imagining a container filled with gas.

![boyle's law](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4soH19FXNh2IZRXAGaHX5C/767ea5d451deb870473448740d577aa9/Demonstration-constant-Boyle-law-mass-temperature-pressure.jpg)

[Source](https://www.britannica.com/science/Boyles-law)

Gas particles have high kinetic energy and move rapidly in all directions, frequently colliding with one another and bouncing off the walls of the vessel that contains them. As a result, gasses have no defined shape and expand to occupy the entire volume of their container. So what happens if you reduce the size of the container while keeping the temperature and number of gas particles inside the same?

Because gas expands to occupy the entire volume of its container, a decrease in vessel size will result in a decrease in volume. The same amount of gas in a smaller space increases the number of collisions between the particles and the walls of the vessel. As per Boyle’s law, the pressure exerted by the gas is inversely proportional to its volume; thus, with a decrease in volume, gas pressure increases. Let’s dive deeper into the nuances of Boyle’s law starting with the derivation of the Boyle’s law formula.

---

### Boyle’s Law Formula & Derivation

We know that under ideal conditions, pressure is inversely proportional to the volume of gas. The mathematical expression of Boyle's law can be written as:

__P ∝ (1 ÷ V)__ 

Where: 

- *P is pressure* 
- *V is volume*

To translate this equation into an algebraic form, we will have to replace the inverse sign ∝ with a constant. For this we use Boyle's constant, k, which can be determined using the following formula:

__k = PV__

Where:

- *k = Boyle’s constant*
- *P = pressure* 
- *V = volume*

This equation can be derived from either:

__V = k ÷ P__		or 	__P = k ÷ V__

The inverse nature of this relationship tells us that when pressure or volume change, the product of the initial pressure and volume will be equal to the product of the final pressure and volume. Thus, Boyle’s law equation is written as:

__P₁V₁ = P₂V₂__

Where: 
- *P₁ is initial pressure*
- *V₁ is initial volume*
- *P₂ is final pressure*
- *V₂ is final volume.*

This equation is derived from the formula for Boyle's constant, the process of which can be seen below.

P₁V₁ = k
P₂V₂ = k

__P₁V₁ = P₂V₂__

---

## 💡 Summary

- Boyle's gas law states the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to the volume of space it occupies when temperature and the number of gas particles are held constant.

- The basic formula for gas pressure according to this law is P ∝ (1 ÷ V).

- To translate this equation into algebraic terms, we need to replace the inverse sign ∝ with a constant. The formula for Boyle’s constant is k = P V.

- We can use the Boyle's constant formula to find the new pressure of a gas following a change in volume by combining the initial value of Boyle’s constant k = P1V1 with the final value k = P₂V₂.

- The result is the algebraic version of the Boyle’s law formula, P₁V₁ = P₂V₂.

---

### 🧐 FAQs

__1. What is Boyle’s law?__

Boyle’s law states that when temperature and the quantity of gas are held constant, the pressure exerted by the gas is inversely proportional to the volume occupied.

__2. What is the formula used to represent Boyle’s law?__

The mathematical expression for Boyle’s law formula is: P₁V₁ = P₂V₂.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Boyle’s Law Of Ideal Gases__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

---

## Sources
1. Boyle’s Law: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemistry_(CK-12)/14%3A_The_Behavior_of_Gases/14.03%3A_Boyle's_Law.Accessed 9th March 2022. 
2. Boyle’s Law of Ideal Gases: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/boyles-law/lecture/The-Sci-Guys%253A-Boyles-Law-of-Ideal-Gases/.Accessed 9th March 2022. 


🗻 Big Picture: Boyle’s law states that when temperature and concentration are kept constant, the pressure exerted by a gas is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it.


Boyle’s Law of Ideal Gasses Study Guide

### Lesson Objectives

- Define the ideal gas  law
- Describe the relationship between the amount of gas (n)  volume (V), pressure (P), and temperature (T) as they relate to an ideal gas
- Solve problems using ideal gas law equation
- Derive the ideal gas law from Charles’s, Boyle’s, and Avogadro’s laws

---

## Introduction 

![gas](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6w8TSy5qWXFvTqmTlt3OXc/8336f6d61026e934ed7ac416654bc1e4/CNX_Chem_09_04_KMT21.jpg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-atdcoursereview-chemistry1-1/chapter/the-kinetic-molecular-theory/)

With the right information and equations, solids and liquids are fairly simple to understand when it comes to behavior. Gasses, however, are a bit more complicated. Gasses are composed of billions and billions of particles that collide and interact at an incredibly high speed. Because it’s difficult to characterize a real gas precisely, the notion of an ideal gas was developed as a rough approximation to simulate and forecast the behavior of real gasses. Let’s talk about what an ideal gas is, its characteristics, and limitations.

---

### What’s an ideal gas?

The term “ideal gas” describes a hypothetical gas made up of molecules that are neither attracted to nor repelled by one another, occupy no space, and all collisions between them are elastic (a collision in which no net kinetic energy is lost).

In reality, there is no such thing as a truly ideal gas. Still, many real  gasses act closely to an ideal gas under certain conditions. Gasses such as nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and the noble gasses are capable of being treated as ideal within reasonable bounds. In general, gasses tend to behave as ideal gasses at very high temperatures and low pressures (circumstances wherein individual particles move very rapidly and are very far apart from each other, with almost no engagement).

![Ideal vs real gas.](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/20BIxRA2g7FGa8c23HkVYO/84113f2cf816c33d93e081057c33d708/Ideal_vs_real_gas.copy.png)
[Source](https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Ideal_gas_approximation)

---

### The Ideal Gas Law Definition, Formula, & Derivation

The ideal gas law states that the product of the pressure and volume of one gram molecule is equal to the product of the gas's actual temperature and the universal gas constant. We express this mathematically as:

__PV = nRT__

Where:

- *P = pressure*
- *V = volume*
- *n = the amount of gas in moles*
- *R = the ideal gas constant*
- *T = the absolute temperature*

The ideal gas law is derived from Charles’s, Boyle’s, Gay-Lussac’s, and Avogadro’s laws combined. Let’s take a look at how it’s done.

In the combined gas law of Charles, Boyle, and Gay-Lussac, the temperature of a gas is directly proportional to its pressure and inversely proportional to its volume. When we add Avogadro’s law to the mix, we find that volume or pressure are directly proportional to the number of moles in a gas. We express this combination with the following equation:

__(P1V1)/(T1n1) = (P2V2)/(T2n2)__

Where:

- *P = pressure*
- *V = volume*
- *n = the amount of gas in moles*
- *T = the absolute temperature*

We are now able to substitute one side of this equation to give us the constant R as we’re able to in the other gas law equations, expressing this as:

__(PV)/(Tn) = R__

When we reorganize this equation, we get the standard arrangement of the ideal gas law, which is:

__PV = nRT__

Where:

- *R = the ideal gas constant*

![Ideal-Gas-Law](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3pkY1gTT31ZZrjjOiKpUGK/838139bc62a4fd2aa0e3fc8a87361104/Ideal-Gas-Law.png)
[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/ideal-gas-law-formula-and-examples/)

It's important to make sure we utilize the correct units when performing calculations for the ideal gas law. If you're using the gas constant 8.31, you'll need to enter the pressure in pascals, volume in meter cubes, and temperature in kelvin. If you wish to use any other unit, you could use the value of gas constant accordingly:

![IDEAL GAS LAW](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/r2AysyVgDVlRvLkzpUbEJ/f0671dea582bc00ab639a89b60adabe2/main-qimg-32a103465d8caffb8538914481c7f118)
[Source](https://www.quora.com/What-value-of-R-gas-constant-should-be-used)

---

### Sample Problem: Ideal Gas Law

What is the volume occupied by 5.43 g of carbon gas at a pressure of 56.9 kPA and temperature of 21°C?

__Step 1: Define the variables__

*P = 56.9 kPA*
*T = 21°C = 294.15 K*
*R = 8.314 J/K•mol*
*Mass C2 = 5.43 g*
*Carbon = 12.0107 g/mol*
*V = ?*

The mass of C2  must be converted to moles in order to use the ideal gas law.

5.43 x (1 mol C2)/12.0107g = 0.452 mol C2

__Step 2: Choose an equation__

For the purpose of this calculation, let’s use the standard notation of the ideal gas law, PV = nRT.

__Step 3: Calculate__

PV = nRT
V = nRT/P
V = (0.452 mol)(8.314 J/K•mol)(294.15 K)/(56.9 kPA)
V = 19.4 L C2

The volume occupied by 5.43 g of carbon gas at a pressure of 56.9 kPA and temperature of 21 is 19.4 L.

---

## 💡 Summary 

- When the particles of a gas are so far apart that they would not generate any attractive forces on each other, the gas is said to be ideal.

- The ideal gas law asserts that a gas's pressure, temperature, and volume are all connected.

---

### 🧐 FAQs: 

__1. What does the ideal gas state?__

The ideal gas law asserts that a gas's pressure, temperature, and volume are all connected.

__2. Why is the ideal gas inaccurate?__

The ideal gas solely exists when the surrounding conditions are optimum. The molecule size and intermolecular forces become significant to consider at high pressure and low temperature, and they are no longer insignificant; hence the ideal gas law is no longer valid.

__3. Does ideal gas law apply to liquids?__

Liquids are not subject to the ideal gas law.

__4. How is ideal gas law used in everyday life?__

If a researcher wishes to store 750 g of oxygen in a vessel with a pressure of 2 atm and a temperature of 150 degrees Fahrenheit, the ideal gas law can be used to calculate the capacity of the container needed.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Ideal Gas law__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

---

## Sources
1. What is the Ideal Gas Law?: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/thermodynamics/temp-kinetic-theory-ideal-gas-law/a/what-is-the-ideal-gas-law accessed 27 Feb 2022
2. Ideal Gas Law: https://byjus.com/physics/ideal-gas-law-and-absolute-zero/ accessed 27 Feb 2022
3. The Ideal Gas Law: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/the-ideal-gas-law/ accessed 27 Feb 2022.


🗻 Big Picture: Ideal gas law states that the product of the absolute temperature of the gas and the universal gas constant equals the product of the pressure and volume of one gram molecule of an ideal gas.


 Ideal Gas Law Study Guide

### Lesson Objectives:
- Define Gay-Lussac’s law
- Describe the relationship between the pressure and temperature of gas at a constant volume and amount of gas.
- Solve problems using the Gay-Lussac’s law equation

---

## Introduction

![gay-lussac](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4aEd3MdMomeoZmGaXXW74M/12a96aab03f9c407acef9c8f91a1d0d6/Gay-Lussacs-Law.png)

[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/gay-lussacs-law-definition-formula-examples/)

Imagine it’s a hot summer day and you’re at the beach with your friends. To protect yourself from the harmful UV rays from the sun, you bring a can of aerosol sunscreen. While you play in the water, the heat from the surrounding environment begins to slowly raise the temperature inside the can higher and higher. When you come back from the water to reapply the sunscreen, you find that the can has exploded all over your belongings. This unfortunate incident can be explained by Gay-Lussac’s law. Let’s talk about how.

---

### Gay-Lussac’s Law Definition, Formula, & Derivation

![gay lussac](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2GyRstEKn7lGNFMax4sovc/a606bce6608605ebdc0d3c7153e147a2/gay-lussacs_law_equations.jpeg)

[Source](https://www.expii.com/t/gay-lussacs-law-overview-formula-11095)

Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas at a constant volume and amount of gas. Mathematically, we can express this as:

__P ∝ T__ 

Meaning that pressure is proportional to temperature. Because Gay-Lussac’s law states that volume and the amount of gas remain constant, we can replace them with the constant k to translate it into the algebraic expression:

__P/T = k__

Where:

- *P = pressure*
- *T = absolute temperature*

If we let the initial pressure equal:

__P1/T2 = k__

and the final volume equal:

__P2/T2 = k__

We can combine these equations to form the Gay-Lussac’s law equation:

__P1/T1 = P2/T2__

Where:

- *P1 = initial pressure*
- *T1 = initial absolute temperature*
- *P2 = final pressure*
- *T2 = final absolute temperature*

---

### Sample Problem: Gay-Lussac’s Law

A sample of boron gas inside a rigid container at 18°C is heated to a temperature of 43°C. The initial pressure of the container was 4.3 atm. Given this information, what is the final pressure of the boron gas?

__Step 1: Define the variables__

P1 = 4.3 atm

P2 = ?

T1 = 18°Cl = 291.15 K

T2 = 43°C = 316.15 K

__Step 2: Set up the equation__

P1/T1 = P2/T2

4.3 atm/291.15 K = P2/316.15K

__Step 3: Calculate__

4.3 atm/291.15 K = P2/316.15K

P2 = (4.3 atm/316.15K) • 291.15 K

P2 = 1359.445 atm/K • 291.15 K

P2 = 4.669 atm

---

## 💡 Summary

- Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas at a constant volume and amount of gas.
- The Avogadro’s law equation is P1/T1 = P2/T2.

---

### 🧐 FAQs

__1. What is Gay-Lussac’s law?__

Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas at a constant volume and amount of gas.

__2. What is the formula used to represent Gay-Lussac’s  law?__

The mathematical expression for Boyle’s law formula is: P1/T1 = P2/T2.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Gay-Lussac’s Law Of Ideal Gasses__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

---

## Sources

1. Admin. “Gay-Lussac’s Law - Statement, Formula, Detailed Explanation.” BYJUS, BYJU’S, 4 Jan. 2016, https://byjus.com/chemistry/gay-lussacs-law/.
2. CK-12 Foundation. “CK12-Foundation.” CK-12 Foundation, CK-12, https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook-2.0/section/14.5/primary/lesson/gay-lussacs-law-chem/. Accessed 19 Apr. 2022.
3. “Gay-Lussac’s Law Lesson Plan | Study.Com.” Study.Com, Study.Com, https://study.com/academy/lesson/gay-lussacs-law-lesson-plan.html. Accessed 19 Apr. 2022.


🗻 Big Picture: Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas at a constant volume and amount of gas.

Gay-Lussac’s Law of Ideal Gasses Study Guide

### Lesson Objectives

- Define Charles’s Law
- Describe the relationship between temperature, T, and the volume, V, of its container with a constant amount of gas and pressure
- Solve problems using the Charles’s law equation
- Derive Charles’s law

---

## INTRODUCTION 

![tire pressure](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7AqTiLqCnYxRnYatSRwSes/7be2e89dd5d1752b20512f376a10117b/LFKSCLREU4I6THZYFAI4AUI7XI.jpg)

[Source](https://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/2019/01/30/cold-you-should-check-your-tire-pressure/35R3FXhWhz9JvtI9Ybs0QL/story.html)

Everyone knows it’s important to check your tire pressure in the winter (and if you didn’t, you do now!). But what’s the science behind it? It all comes down to the relationship between temperature and pressure, which can be explained by Charles’s law. The law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at a constant pressure with a constant amount of gas particles.

In the winter, the temperature drops, causing the volume of gas contained within a tire to decrease. Underinflated tires have less precise cornering and handling, causing a bumpy, uncomfortable ride. Besides that, tires with low pressure have a lower fuel efficiency, so not only will you have a smoother ride with properly inflated tires, you’ll be saving cash too. Let’s talk more about the details of Charles’s law and how you can use it to calculate the temperature or volume of a gas when pressure and particle concentration are held constant.

![charles's law](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6yBgpsbhe1OaGaouZ1fv0r/ff3d204bfd1edece9e00eacf51c0cbf1/Charless-Law.png)

[Source](https://sciencenotes.org/charless-law-definition-formula-examples/)

---

### Charles’s Law Definition, Formula, & Derivation

Mathematically, Charles’s Law can be expressed as: 

__V ∝ T__

Where:
- *V = Volume*
- *T = Absolute temperature*

Meaning that volume is proportional to temperature. Because Charles’s law states that pressure and the amount of gas remain constant, we can replace them with the constant k to translate it into the algebraic expression:

If we let the initial volume equal:

__V1 ÷ T1 = k__

and the final volume equal: 

__V2 ÷ T2 = k__

We can combine these equations to form the Charles’s law equation:

__V2 ÷ V1 = T2 ÷ T1	or	V1T2 = V2T1__

Where:
- *V2 = final volume*
- *V1 = initial volume*
- *T2 = final absolute temperature*
- *T1 = initial absolute temperature*

---

### Sample Problem: Charles’s Law

A balloon is filled to a volume of 4.3 L at a temperature of 25°C. The balloon is then heated to a temperature of 54°C. Given this information, what is the new volume of the balloon?

__Step 1: Define the variables__

- *V1 = 4.3 L*
- *V2 = ?*
- *T1 = 25°C = 198.15 K*
- *T2 = 54°C = 327.15*

__Step 2: Choose your formula__

For the purpose of this problem, let’s use V1T2 = V2T1

__Step 3: Calculate__

V1T2 = V2T1

(4.3 L)(327.15 K) = (V2 )( 198.15 K)

(1406.745 L/K)/198.15 K = V2 

7.0994 = V2 

The new volume of the balloon is __7.0994__.

---

## 💡 Summary

- Charles’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at a constant pressure with a constant amount of gas particles.

- The Charles’s law equation is written as V2 ÷ V1 = T2 ÷ T1	 or V1T2 = V2T1 

---

### 🧐 FAQs

__1. What does Charles's law state?__

Charles's Law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at a constant pressure. 

__2. Write down Charles's Law formula.__

Charles's Law formula is written as: 

                   VI /TI = VF/ TF

Where: 

*VI = Initial volume*
*VF = Final volume*
*TI = Initial absolute temperature*
*TF = Final absolute temperature*

Here the temperatures are absolute temperatures that are measured in Kelvin, not in ⁰F or ⁰C.

__3. What do Boyle's laws state?__

Boyle's law states that a gas's pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Charles's Law and Boyle's Law__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

---

## Sources
1. Charles’s Law of Ideal Gases: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/charless-law/lecture/The-Sci-Guys:-Charless-Law-of-Ideal-Gases/. Accessed 3rd March 2022.
2. Boyle’s Law Examples: https://chemistrygod.com/boyle-law-examples. Accessed 3rd March 2022.


🗻 Big Picture: Charles's law, also known as the law of volume, gives us a detailed description of how gas expands at different temperatures. 


Charles's Law Study Guide

# Introduction
Do you know that the gas cylinder supplied to your homes contains compressed natural gas? What is compression? What does it do to the gas? But if we are going to use natural gas in the end, what is the need to compress it? Let’s find answers to these questions!

## Compressiblility
Compressibility is the ability of something to reduce its size or volume by application of pressure. 

![gases](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5gxD9XX2zpUsLMs0c9cGh1/4c7287b8f0bf9953b4185e4cf27018b1/Figure_14_03_01.jpg)
[Source](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/13-3-the-ideal-gas-law/)

- Imagine molecules or atoms of the gas as free-flowing. 
- The distance between atoms or molecules of a gas is very large, and they are very far from each other. 
- According to the kinetic theory of gasses, at room temperature and pressure, the average distance between the molecules of a gas is ten times greater than the actual diameter of an atom/molecule of gas. 
- When we apply pressure, the atoms/molecules start to come closer, their gap decreases, and the volume decreases too. 
- Something which can be compressed is called compressible.

## Why Are Gasses Compressible But Not Solids And Liquids?
Compressibility depends on intermolecular distance, that is, the distance between particles. If the distance between particles is large, then that state of matter can be compressed.

For example, in the gaseous state of matter, the distance between atoms or molecules is quite large as there is enough gap. When pressure is applied to gas, the constituent atoms or molecules come closer, and thus, the volume decreases, which we call compression. 

But in the case of liquid, the gaps are very less, and in the case of solids, gaps are the least. So, it is very difficult to compress the liquid, and solids are incompressible

![compress](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3I1ilbDATD8v1xnCvDDnyp/d885b6183e41e25ffcb6d3aae7a8f125/O4SXkqjJSBGfhnsCB9ou_aHR0cDovL3d3dy5saXZlc2NpZW5jZS5jb20vaW1hZ2VzL2kvMDAwLzA4MC81ODEvb3JpZ2luYWwvc3RhdGVzLW9mLW1hdHRlci5qcGc.jpg)
[Source](https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-examples-of-gases-liquids-and-solids)

## Daily Life Examples Of Compressibility

__1. The LPG cylinder:__ 

Natural gas is used as a fuel, but the gas occupies a lot of volume, and for that, we’ll require huge tanks or cylinders. But that is impractical. So, natural gas is compressed first and then supplied as the storage becomes easy.

__2. Shaving Cream:__ 

When shaving cream is present inside the can, the cream is a mixture of soap and water, which is compressed in the form of gas.

__3. Pump:__ 

Using a pump that contains compressed gas, a bicycle tire can be inflated. 

__4. Oxygen cylinders:__ 

Oxygen is kept in compressed form in cylinders that are used in hospitals and also in tanks used for scuba diving.

__5. Welding:__ 

Cylinders used for welding contain a mixture of acetylene and oxygen in compressed form, which gives out the hot flame on burning as required for welding. 

# Conclusion
- Compressibility is the ability of something to reduce its size or volume by application of pressure. 
- Compressibility depends on the distance between particles. That is why gases are most compressible.

## FAQs
__1. What is compressibility?__

Compressibility is the ability of something to reduce its size or volume by application of pressure. 

__2. Out of gases, solids, and liquids, which is most compressible?__

Gases are most compressible as the distance between atoms/molecules is very large.

__3. LPG cylinders contain compressed natural gas. Is this statement right or wrong?__

Right, LPG cylinders contain compressed natural gas.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Compressibility!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun 😎.*

## SOURCES
1. Compressibility: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/compressibility/lesson/Compressibility-CHEM/. Accessed 5th March 2022.


Compressibility is the ability to reduce the size of something when pressure is applied. Gasses are most compressible because the distance between their constituent atoms/molecules is maximum.

Compressibility Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

When cars were first manufactured, there was no way to ensure that the people in them remained protected. Later, seatbelts were attached. But, this was not enough to ensure protection. Thus, airbags were manufactured for additional protection of people riding in vehicles. Let us find out how airbags work.

![airbag](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3RPauPkHZqr3VV5jzN6PBp/75ef6f1bcc77da940dbc784787d71484/airbag.jpg)
[Source](https://cecas.clemson.edu/cvel/auto/actuators/airbag.html)

### WHAT ARE AIRBAGS, AND WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT?

Airbags are inflated bags that serve as a cushion for any part of your body. They are usually found in cars and are attached in a place in front so that they can spring out of their place and cushion you from hard surfaces. They are essential for every vehicle because they play a huge role in protecting you from accidents. 

While seatbelts promptly keep you strapped in your place, there is no saying how far your upper body can be injured in the face of an accident. Thus, airbag chemistry proved to be very effective,  working alongside seatbelts in the function of protecting the people that travel in vehicles.

![Overview of airbags](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5bC5eQbetO63LmWHkqRDt8/19e53c9e9e46321bdb0ad4e46fc87011/Overview_of_airbags.png)
[Source](https://innovationdiscoveries.space/an-overview-of-car-airbags/)

### HOW IS CHEMISTRY APPLIED IN THE MANUFACTURING OF AIRBAGS?

Airbags contain a compound known as sodium azide, which is quite stable at normal temperature, and no changes occur in the airbag. But, at a higher temperature, this compound breaks down into its subsequent products of sodium and nitrogen. Thus, airbags do not contain air as the name implies but are filled with nitrogen.

### HOW ARE THEY ACTIVATED IN CARS?

Since NaN3 reacts at high temperatures, there are collision sensors attached in front of a car which takes advantage of this property. As soon as a collision is sensed, an igniter compound is produced, which is responsible for raising the temperature causing the compound of NaN₃ to break and produce the N2, which inflates the airbag in about 30 seconds.

### WHAT HAPPENS TO THE SODIUM THAT IS PRODUCED?
When an airbag deploys, the Na produced is extremely reactive; thus, if there is any moisture around, it will immediately react with it to form NaOH, which is extremely harmful. Thus, certain other chemicals are also included so that the sodium reacts with them to form less harmful compounds.

### FAQs

__1. What is the chemistry behind an airbag?__

The heat produced by accident causes the NaN₃ to break into two products, nitrogen and sodium. 67 liters of N₂ gas is produced from around 130 grams of sodium azide, which is enough to inflate the airbag.

__2. Why does an airbag contain KNO₃ and SiO₂?__

Sodium metal produced by the breaking down of sodium azide being extremely reactive, KNO₃ and SiO₂ are used to transform the sodium metal into harmless material.

__3. Why is nitrogen used in airbags?__

Sodium azide is a very stable explosive that explodes at a very high temperature of around 300°C and takes around 40 milliseconds to produce a large volume of nitrogen which is enough to inflate the airbag. Also, N₂ being an inert gas is harmless.

__4. Why do airbags always fill evenly?__

The main purpose of an airbag is to reduce the speed of the passenger's progression evenly. Thus, the airbags are evenly inflated.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Importance of using an Airbag__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES
1. Saved by an Air Bag: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/gas-stoichiometry/rwa/Saved-by-an-Air-Bag/. Accessed 7th March 2022.
2. How do Air Bags Works? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-air-bags-work/. Accessed 7th March 2022.


Let us learn how chemistry is applied in our daily lives by using airbags for protection.


Importance Of Using An Airbag Study Guide

TL;DR Charles Law And Boyle's Law

TL;DR Compressibility

TL;DR Ideal Gas Law

TL;DR Importance Of Airbags

TL;DR Avogadro's Law

### Lesson Objectives:

- Define Avogadro’s law
- Describe the relationship between the amount of gas, n, and the volume, V, of its container at a constant pressure and temperature
- Solve problems using Avogadro’s equation
- Derive Avogadro’s law from the ideal gas law

---

## Introduction

![breathing](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/hfTvdzCAcHJju91Pdl4p0/ef6a7487cfa1e24f86f59f318b95cb65/proper-breathing-process.jpg)

[Source](https://getvipcare.com/blog/proper-breathing-how-you-might-be-doing-it-wrong/)

Did you know that every time you breathe in you’re demonstrating Avogadro’s law in action? The law states that the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature. In basic terms, when the number of gas particles increases, the volume of the space the gas occupies increases proportionally. 

When you take a breath in, you’re breathing in gas particles from the air around you. The addition of these gas particles increases the volume of your lungs as they expand. This expansion keeps pressure constant and the temperature of the air remains the same as well. Thus, as per Avogadro’s law, an increase in particle concentration leads to an increase in volume when pressure and temperature are held constant.

---

### What is Avogadro's law?

The law is named after Italian scientist Amedeo Carlo Avogadro, who conveyed that __two different ideal gasses occupying the same volume at a given pressure and temperature will contain the same number of atoms or molecules.__

Avogadro’s Law states that the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature. 

Avogadro’s law is linked with the __ideal gas equation__ since it connects factors like pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of substance for the given gas.

---

### Avogadro’s Law Formula & Derivation

For a given mass of ideal gas, the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature. The mathematical representation of Avogadro’s law is:

__V = k ྾ n__	or	__V1/n1 = V2/n2__

Where:

- *V is volume*
- *k is a constant*
- *n is the number of gas particles in moles.*

Avogadro’s law can be easily derived using the ideal gas equation:

__PV = nRT__

Where:

- *P is the pressure exerted by the gas on the container wall*
- *V is the gaseous volume*
- *n is the amount of gas in moles*
- *R is the universal gas constant*
- *T is the absolute temperature of the gas*

Because Avogadro’s law states that temperature and pressure remain constant, we can replace them with the constant k to translate it into the algebraic expression:

__V/n = k__

When we rearrange this equation, we find:

__V = k ྾ n__

From this equation we can see that as the number of gas particles increases, so does the volume. Let’s try out a practice problem to see how it works.

![graph](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4ks3NbCvfi9qAbApjzkYQn/14d8eabfa0ba0ff670c9ee3afff05f5c/avogadros-law-graph-volume-mole.png)
[Source](https://chemistrygod.com/avogadros-law)

---

### Sample Problem: Avogadro’s Law 

At a constant pressure and temperature, 10.0 L of a gas contains 1.125 moles. If the amount of gas is increased to 1.342, what new volume will result?

__Step 1: Define the variables__

- *V1 = 10.0 L*
- *V2 = ?*
- *n1 = 1.125 mol*
- *n2 = 1.342 mol*

__Step 2: Choose an equation__

For the purpose of this calculation, let’s use the equation format V1/n1 = V2/n2.

__Step 3: Calculate__

V1 ÷ n1 = V2 ÷ n2
V1 × n2 = V2 × n1
10.0 L × 1.342 mol = V2 × 1.125 mol
V2 = (10.0 L × 1.342 mol)/1.125 mol
V2 = 11.929 L

The new volume of the gas is __11.929 L__.

---

## Molar Volume 

As Avogadro’s Law states, the ratio of the gaseous substance amount and the volume remains constant when the values of pressure and temperature are constant, and this ratio is denoted by k. Hence,

__K = (RT)/P__

Under standard pressure and temperature 
T= 273.15k and P= 101.325 kiloPascals 
Thus, 

The volume of given one-mole gas at STP 

= (8.315 J.mol-1.K-1)(273.15k)/(101.325kPa)

__=22.4 liters__

---

## 💡 Summary 
- Avogadro’s law states that the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature.
- Avogardro’s equation is written as V = k ྾ n or V1/n1 = V2/n2.

---

## 🧐 FAQs 

__1. What is Avogadro’s gas law formula?__ 

Avogadro’s Law specifies that the total number of molecules or atoms of gas remains directly proportional to the volume that the gas occupies at constant pressure and temperature.

__2. What Is Avogadro’s law class 11?__

Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gasses, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules.

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## Sources 
1. Avogadro’s Law:https://byjus.com/chemistry/avogadros-law/.Accessed 9th March 2022.
2. Avogadro’s Law:https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/avogadro-law.Accessed 9th March 2022.
3. Avogadro’s Law: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/09%3A_Gases/9.06%3A_Avogadro's_Law.Accessed 9th March 2022.


Avogadro’s law formula is a gas law, and some regard it as Avogadro’s hypothesis or principle. Read on to know more about this.