Master the mole and all of its applications in chemistry in no time with the help of our detailed study guides, 3D models, simulations, practice calculations, and more!

Chemistry

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## INTRODUCTION

After trees are cut down, timber companies often transport the wood to a sawmill, where it is fashioned into construction materials or other goods. Because the logs are less thick than the stream they are in, they float. In the classification and separation of materials, understanding density is crucial. We can make predictions about the behavior of matter using density information. We know that a party balloon filled with air will not float, but a helium-filled balloon will. This is because helium is less dense than the air we fill in.

![helium-filled balloon](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1mLUrZzm8gDcM1McyrIxJq/bf5c66823d93b221bdc842a515798b25/helium-filled_balloon.jpg)
[Source](https://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~lecturedemonstrations/Composer/Pages/36.39.html)

### DENSITY 

The density of any gas (including air) is an important feature. The mass of an object divided by its volume is described as density, and many of our interactions involving density involve solids. Even though they are the same size, we know that certain objects are heavier than others. Because density is characterized as mass divided by volume, density is dependent on the volume of the vessel in which a gas is contained.

D = mass/volume

where D is the density 

![Density](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1AazkOICro3yKXej6Ke9Gw/1dc85a760fe486fa37aa0541bc003481/density-wiki-header.jpg)
[Source](https://wiki.anton-paar.com/co-es/densidad-y-medicion-de-densidad/)

Objects moving through denser or "heavier" air will slow down more because they must, in effect, push away more or heavier molecules. According to athletes, home runs fly much further in elevated Denver's less dense air than in lower-altitude baseball stadiums.

Because the helium is less dense than air, the helium will not hold the balloon down, so the balloon will float away. As a matter of fact, Helium, Hydrogen, and air are the lowest density gasses. Out of the three, only hydrogen gas is lighter than helium. 

A plane is an example of a "heavier-than-air" flight, which occurs when an object is denser than the surrounding air. Prior to the development of this technology, engineers and innovators created systems built on the concept that things with a lower density than air will float.

### CHARLES LAW 

Charles' law, often known as the law of volumes, describes how a gas expands as the temperature rises. A reduction in temperature, on the other hand, will result in a decrease in volume. This property explains that heated air is another material that is less dense than air. The ideal gas law is a specific case of Charle's law. The law applies to ideal gasses that are kept at constant pressure but have varying temperatures and volumes.

When you take a basketball outside on the court in the winter, the ball shrinks as the temperature drops. The only purpose of inspecting the pressure in your automobile tires when going outside on chilly days is for this reason.

## CONCLUSION:

- The mass of an object divided by its volume is described as density.
- A gas expands as the temperature rises, thus making it lighter.
- A reduction in temperature will result in a decrease in volume.

### FAQs:

__1. Is there anything less dense than air?__

Heated air is less dense than air.

__2. Which liquid is less dense than air?__

There are no liquids less dense than atmospheric air.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Gas Density!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:
1. Understanding Air Density and its Effects: https://iflycoast.com/understanding-air-density-and-its-effects/. Accessed 23 Feb 2022.
2. Gas Density and Charle’s Law: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/gas-density/rwa/Up-Up-and-Away/. Accessed 23 Feb 2022.


The gasses that are less dense than the air float.


Gas Density Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

We all know the importance of drinking water in our day-to-day lives. Remaining hydrated 💧  throughout the day is extremely important for the normal functioning of all the body organs and systems. It is because water constitutes approximately 60% of our bodies! This water content can also be stated as: the percentage composition of water in the human body is 60%. You might be wondering what a percentage composition is. Let's find out. 

![Percent Composition](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/0NHpLc2W33KtmQqMsdINj/3c145059eb5a5dff57457cf6083cbe5b/Percent_Composition.png)
[Source](https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Arkansas_Little_Rock/Chem_1402%3A_General_Chemistry_1_(Belford)/Text/2%3A_Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/2.10%3A_Percent_Composition) 

### PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

The ratio of every element's amount to the overall amount of available components contained in the compound multiplied by 100 is the percent makeup. The amount is expressed in the grams of the various components present. 

Any compound's percentage composition reflects its makeup in the perspective of all of the components present. As a result, it aids in the chemical examination of a particular substance. 

__% mass = (mass of element in 1 mole of the compound) / (molar mass of the compound) x 100%__ 

Source

### SAMPLE PROBLEM 

Many commercialized products contain the bicarbonate of soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate), and NaHCO3 is the formulation. Let's now calculate the mass percent of Na, H, C, and O in sodium hydrogen carbonate. 
To begin, use the Periodic Table to seek up the atomic weight of the elements. The masses of the atoms are discovered to be: 

- Na - 23 
- H - 1 
- C - 12 
- O - 16 

Next, calculate how many grams of every element seem to be in a mole of NaHCO₃: 

- 23 g (1 mol) of Na 
- 1 g (1 mol) of H 
- 12 g (1 mol) of C 

48.00 g (3 mole x 16 gram per mole) of O 
1 mole of NaHCO₃ has the following mass: 
23g + 1g +12g + 48 g = 84 g 

And the elemental mass percentages become 

- % Mass of Na = 23 g / 84 g x 100 = 27.36 % 
- % Mass of H = 1 g / 84 g x 100 = 1.20 % 
- % Mass of C = 12 g / 84 g x 100 = 14.30 % 
- % Mass of O = 48 g / 84 g x 100 = 57.14 % 

## CONCLUSION: 

You may determine the percentage composition of a compound experimentally, and you could use all these data to calculate a compound's empirical formula. 
Any compound's percentage composition reflects its makeup in the perspective of all of the components present. 

### FAQs: 

__1. What does percentage composition depend on?__

By dividing the mass of every element by the compound's entire mass, the compound's percent composition (by weight) may be derived. 

__2. What is percent composition? Why is it important in chemistry?__

A compound's percentage composition is essential since it helps us figure out what percentage of every element constitutes that complex. In nature, everything is chemically or physically bonded with other elements. To figure out how much of a substance is in a sample, you must first figure out the proportion of the specimen.

__3. Does percent composition change in a compound?__

Considering that a compound is pure, the percentage composition of that compound will always be the same. 

__4. In what other ways can you apply percentage composition?__

Comparing the percentage composition achieved practically to the theoretical value estimated from the compound's formulation can determine the purity of a chemical. Air quality and fuel combustion can all be constituted from the percentage makeup. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Percent Composition__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES: 
1. Percent Composition. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/percent-composition/lesson/Percent-Composition-CHEM/. Accessed 18 Feb 2022.
2. How to Calculate Mass Percent Composition. https://www.thoughtco.com/mass-percent-composition-example-609567. Accessed 18 Feb 2012. 
3. Percent Composition of Compounds. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/percent-composition-of-compounds/#:~:text=Percent%20composition%20is%20calculated%20from,is%20presented%20as%20a%20percentage. Accessed 18 Feb 2022.


Chemical compounds' atomic makeup can be expressed in several ways, including molecular formulae and percent composition.

Percent Composition Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

It is an obvious fact that Frodo Baggins could have never reached Mount Doom without the directions from Gollum or without a perfect map in The Lord of the Rings. Similarly, a map or online instructions are imperial to reach a destination. Mole road maps in chemistry follow a similar pattern. What is the best way to handle a specific sort of calculation? There is a procedure and a set of instructions to assist you.

### MOLE FRACTION 

Any measurement has two parts: the quantitative magnitude and the units in which the quantitative magnitude is represented. The magnitude is '8', and the unit is 'kilogram' when the mass of a kid is measured to be 8 kilograms. Even one gram of a pure element contains a large number of atoms when interacting with particles at the atomic (or molecular) level. The mole notion is commonly employed in this context. It is largely concerned with the mole unit.

One mole of pure carbon-12 (12C) has a mass of exactly 12 grams and contains 6.02214076*1023 (NA) number of 12C atoms, for instance. The following formula can be used to calculate the number of moles in a pure sample:

                                 n = N/NA

Here, NA is the Avogadro's constant, and n is the number of moles of the substance (or elementary entity). N is the total number of elementary entities in the sample.

Let us recall three conversions from previous classes. Remember that n is the number of moles.

- Moles to mass: n × (molar mass )= X grams
- Moles to particles: n × 6.022×1023= X particles
- moles of gas to volume: n (gas) ×22.4 = X liters

At STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure), a simple visual aid to remembering how to convert between moles and volume, moles and mass, and moles and particle count.

![Mole road map](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1e7cO866BWnRuneXdomBFf/bc9f1665249e74eba62682479ed8fac6/img_b9f266de9b7f-1.jpeg)
[Source](https://www.expii.com/t/mole-road-map-overview-examples-of-conversions-11082)  

### SAMPLE PROBLEM: MOLE ROADMAP 

⇒ At STP, a specific process yields 86.5L of hydrogen gas. What was the total number of moles of hydrogen produced?

__Step 1__ is to make a list of the known quantities and come up with a plan for solving the problem. Here we know that we have 86.5 L of hydrogen and 1 mol = 22.4 l, and the volume is unknown 

__Step 2__ is to calculate using the conversion factors

86.5 × 1 mol H₂ / 22.4 l H₂ = 2.86 mol of hydrogen. 

## CONCLUSION:
1. A mole is the quantity of a substance that includes precisely 6.02214076 * 1023 'elementary entities' of the given substance.
2. The number of moles in a pure sample can be calculated as n = N/NA.
3. Where NA is the Avogadro's constant and n is the number of moles of the substance.

### FAQs: 

__1. How do you use the mole map?__ 

A. A mole map can be used by first noting the unknown and known quantities and later using conversion factors to calculate the solution.

__2. How do you find the percent composition of a mole?__ 

A.The molecular formula is used to compute the percent composition of a compound: divide the weight of each element found in one mole of the compound by the total molar mass.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something interesting about __Mole Town Chemistry__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our app to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:
1. Mole basic concept. https://byjus.com/chemistry/mole-concept-basics/. Accessed 21 Feb 2022
2. Mole town chemistry. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/mole-road-map/lesson/Mole-Road-Map-CHEM/. Accessed 21 Feb 2022.


See how moles can be calculated using the map.


Mole Road Map Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

Have you ever wondered how many air molecules there are in the soccer ball you're playing with or the food you're eating? Atoms or molecules are the smallest units in terms of mass and size, as we all understand. The molar mass is the mass of one sampling mole. The molar mass of a compound is computed by summing the atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecule. So, how do you estimate the molar mass mathematically?

### WHAT IS MOLAR MASS?

The molar mass of any substance is defined as the smallest mass unit of that compound with one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon that would be 12 atoms. In any substance, the number of entities present can always be defined as a mole.

![molar mass](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3euvKkuGb9RHEdr7nvDPuN/1fdfea75d1f65ba3870e489cc79b3601/molarmass.png)
[Source](https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-molar-mass-definition-formula-examples.html)

### HOW TO CALCULATE THE MOLAR MASS OF A COMPOUND?

- Using the periodic table, find the atomic masses. For each element, you must figure out the atomic mass using the periodic table. For any element, the number that appears on the top left represents atomic mass.
- Count the number of atoms present in each element (The subscript of an element in its chemical formula).
- Now find the molar mass. Now that you know the atomic mass and how many atoms of the compound are involved, you can find the molar mass as shown below.

![molar-mass](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1I3C4pihYhy53ssERTDSzq/3b7eb38b75429b07968dfc794b0ed851/molar-mass.png)
[Source](https://www.inchcalculator.com/molar-mass-calculator/)

Calculate the molar mass of Na₂CO₃:

Na: 2 x 23.0 = 46

C: 1 x 12.0 = 12

O: 3 x 16 = 48

To get the final answer, add up the total values, i.e., 46 12 48 = 106
Hence, the molar mass of Na₂CO₃ is 106 g/mole.

Let's take another example to find the mass of sulfur in an 8.5 mol sample of sulfur:

mass of S = moles of S × molar mass of S

mass of S = 8.5 mol S × 32.07 g/mol S

mass of S = 272.595 g

Here are some questions for you to practise:

1. Find the molar mass of CaCOH
2. Find the molar mass of Cr₄(P₂O7)₃
3. Calculate the molar mass of KAl(SO₄)₂·12 H₂O
4. Find the number of moles in a 39.25-gram sample of CdBr₂.

## CONCLUSION:
- Molar mass can be defined as the smallest unit of mass of any compound and is the twelfth of one carbon mass - 12 atoms.
- The standard unit is g mol⁻¹ and the SI one as kg mol⁻¹.

### FAQs 

__1. How do you find the molar mass?__

- Calculate the number of atoms of every element in the compound using the chemical formula.
- Multiply every element's atomic weight by the number of atoms included in the compound.
- Add everything up and convert to grams/mole.

__2. What is molar mass in simple words?__

The mass of a specimen of a chemical compound divided by the amount of material in that specimen, expressed in moles, is the molar mass of that compound.

__3.  What is molar mass, and what is its unit?__

The mass in grams of one mole of a material is known as molar mass. Molar mass is measured in grams per mole.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Molar Mass Practice Problems__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES
1. Molar Mass Formula: https://byjus.com/molar-mass-formula/ Accessed 14 march 2022
2. Molar Mass Q&A: https://study.com/learn/molar-mass-questions-and-answers.html Accessed 14 march 2022


The mass in grams of one mole of a material is known as molar mass.


Molar Mass Practice Problems Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

Have you ever wondered what the exact number of molecules present in a football you are playing with or the water you are drinking is? We know by now that atoms or molecules are the smallest units when considering both mass and size. The weight of one sample mole is the molar mass. The molar mass is calculated by adding all the atomic masses of each and every atom in a molecule. How can molar mass be defined then?

### WHAT IS MOLAR MASS IN CHEMISTRY? 

The molar mass of any substance is defined as the smallest mass unit of that compound with one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon that would be 12 atoms. In any substance, the number of entities present can always be defined as a mole. 

![Moles](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3rdqXwiv22Cd8Gb30sH5or/301a5e40f1a1f33a0177e6612bbe9d7b/Moles.png)
[Source](https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/6094a1eb29813b001b27d659/mole-molar-mass-conversions)

### WHAT IS THE MOLAR MASS UNIT?

You can take the standard unit to be g mol⁻¹ and the SI one as kg mol⁻¹. The number of atoms that is observed in 12g of 12C isotope is the number of particles you would also observe in 1 mole of the substance. Remember, no matter the substance, the mole of any substance would always contain the same entity number. 

A spectrometer was used to measure the mass of carbon-12 atoms, and it was found to be 1.992648x 10⁻³g. The number of entities in one mole is crucial while calculating the mass in chemistry and is known as the Avogadro number, which is 6.02214076 x 10²³. 

### MASS AND MOLAR MASS FORMULA 

It might seem easy to calculate the formula masses of molecules, atoms, and other such compounds; however, finding individual weights of these particles does not serve any useful purpose. They should be expressed at a more macroscopic level, and the bridge between this particulate and the macroscopic level is considered as the molar mass. 

                       Molar mass = mass/mole = g/mol

![Molar Mass Unit](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7aT2jomMZNVphrsHWhI02j/cec62ef38e9c7b39d51725ceab1c2a20/Mole-Concept.jpg)
[Source](https://byjus.com/chemistry/mole-concept-molar-mass-and-percentage-composition/)

### HOW CAN YOU EASILY FIND THE MOLAR MASS FOR DIFFERENT COMPOUNDS?

Let us take an example to understand how to calculate the molar mass of NaCl.

![molar mass](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6u9x6j2QmN1n7ZjMUsugZ9/7f6d1df42e9b7911a21f3c6ed2fd6180/molarmassnacl.png)
[Source](https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-molar-mass-definition-formula-examples.html)

- Using the periodic table, find the atomic masses: For each element, you must figure out the atomic mass using the periodic table. For any element, the number that appears on the top left represents atomic mass. The atomic mass of sodium would be 22.98976 g/mol, and that of chlorine would be 35.453 g/mol.
- Count the number of atoms present in each element: Since there are no subscripts, that means there is only one sodium and one chlorine atom in this compound. 
- Now Find the molar mass: Now that you know the atomic mass and how many atoms of the compound are involved, you can find the molar mass as shown in the example.

## CONCLUSION

- Molar mass can be defined as the smallest unit of mass of any compound and is the twelfth of one carbon mass - 12 atoms.
- The standard unit is g mol⁻¹ and the SI one as kg mol⁻¹.
- You can find the molar mass if you know the atomic mass and number of atoms involved in each element.

### FAQs

__1. Is mass equal to molar mass?__

Molar mass is considered to be the same as the formula mass.

__2. What is meant by molar mass?__

Molar mass can be defined as the smallest unit of mass of any compound and is the twelfth of one carbon mass- 12 atoms.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Molar Mass__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES 
1. Molar Mass: https://byjus.com/chemistry/mole-concept-molar-mass-and-percentage-composition/.Accessed 10th March 2022.
2. What Is Molar Mass? https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-molar-mass-definition-formula-examples.html.Accessed 10th March 2022.


Mass/molar mass can be defined as the smallest unit of mass of any compound and is the twelfth of one carbon mass- 12 atoms. Read on to find more. 


Molar Mass Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

A matter exists in three states, solid, liquid, and gas. The intermolecular force in a solid is so strong that it has a high density. The particles in solid can barely move, so they occupy a lesser volume in a container. The liquid, on the other hand, has a weak intermolecular force, so the particles have some freedom of movement. Therefore, liquids occupy a greater volume in a container and assume their shape. 

![Avogadro’s hypothesis](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6GOBulqTchYBBcH4Pnd17D/edaebdff0ef2c8e241798338db2221f0/Avogadro___s_hypothesis.png)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/avogadros-hypothesis-and-molar-volume/lesson/Avogadros-Hypothesis-and-Molar-Volume-CHEM/)

Lastly, particles in a gas have their own speed and direction, so there is a lot of empty space in between. Therefore, they occupy a higher volume in a container. However, an accurate measurement of the volume occupied by a gas is difficult. Avogadro’s hypothesis is used to determine the volume of gases. In this article, we will talk more about Avogadro’s hypothesis to provide you with a better understanding. 

### WHAT IS AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS DEFINITION?

Amedeo Avogadro, in 1811 proposed that different gases with the same volume have an equal number of particles under the same temperature and pressure conditions. This is known as Avogadro’s law definition. Therefore, a lighter gas like hydrogen and a heavier gas like SF₆ will have the same number of particles at equal volume.

Gas volume is affected by pressure because increasing the pressure can compress the gas particles and close the empty space between them. Hence, the volume will decrease. Similarly, heating a gas (raising the temperature) will impart kinetic energy to the particles, and they will move further apart, thereby increasing the volume. 

This is the reason that Avogadro proposed that gas volume comparison must always be made under standard temperature and pressure conditions. The standard temperature is 0°C, and the standard pressure is 1 atm. 

Based on these findings, it was stated that the molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by 1 mole of gas at standard temperature and pressure conditions. Therefore, 1 mole of all the gases at STP occupy a volume of 22.4L have 6.02 X 10²³ particles. 

![Avogadro’s hypothesis](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1FT8oghncx01xnKOzkGYFm/e59355d0257f1f8f9be9f36e5b9a4fa5/f-d_6d730a9136f45250a74c015edee7c3252dff09e06a32db31bae42cdb_IMAGE_THUMB_LARGE_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_LARGE_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/avogadros-hypothesis-and-molar-volume/lesson/Avogadros-Hypothesis-and-Molar-Volume-CHEM/)

The diagram above represents three gases: helium, nitrogen, and methane. All these gases contain the same number of particles at 1 mole at STP. However, each of these gases has a different molar mass. Now, is molar volume intensive or extensive? 1 mole of any gas occupies equal volume. This is an intensive property.

### AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS EXAMPLE

Scuba divers carry an oxygen tank on their back that allows them to breathe underwater. However, there is only a limited supply of oxygen, so the divers must be wary of oxygen levels to avoid any accident. 

For this reason, they use different devices to take pressure readings. A basic understanding of Avogadro’s hypothesis helps them figure out the oxygen levels for scuba tank size comparison and to get back to the surface in time.

![Avogadro's Hypothesis and Molar Volume](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3BXlbgy5OGiun7NjkXTAp9/4a4a492ac0cc0d151397a6a339d5806f/f-d_aed1b5f7f3ba597ccf39f284497034395ae78a7e041947c46ff5aede_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY_IMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD_TINY.1)
[Source](https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/avogadros-hypothesis-and-molar-volume/lesson/Avogadros-Hypothesis-and-Molar-Volume-CHEM/)

## CONCLUSION

- The matter exists in three states, solid, liquid, and gas.
- Measurement of matter can be done through volume, mass, and quantity.
- However, different states of matter occupy different volumes.
- Solids have a strong intermolecular force, so they have a higher density and occupy a lesser volume.
- Liquids have a weaker intermolecular force, so they occupy a greater volume in the container.
- Gases have a lot of empty space between particles because they move at their own speed and have high kinetic energy. 
- Measurement of the volume of gases is difficult because of their properties.
- Avogadro’s principle definition states that the same volume of gases under standard temperature and pressure conditions contain an equal number of particles (6.02 X 10²³).
- The standard temperature is 0°C, and the standard pressure is 1 atm.
- Scuba divers apply Avogadro’s hypothesis to measure the level of oxygen left in their tank.

### FAQs

__1. What is Avogadro constant?__

Avogadro’s constant is the number of particles contained in 1 mole of gas occupying a volume of 22.4L under standard temperature and pressure conditions. The value of Avogadro’s constant is 6.02 X 10²³.

__2. What is Avogadro number mole?__

The value of Avogadro’s constant is 6.02 X 10²³.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Avogadro’s Hypothesis__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES
1. Avogadro’s Hypothesis: https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/avogadros-hypothesis-and-molar-volume/lesson/Avogadros-Hypothesis-and-Molar-Volume-CHEM/.Accessed 9th March 2022. 
2. Avogadro's Hypothesis: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Thermodynamics_and_Chemical_Equilibrium_(Ellgen)/02%3A_Gas_Laws/2.03%3A_Avogadro's_Hypothesis. Accessed 9th March 2022. 


Avogadro in chemistry states that under STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure), equal volumes of gases have the same number of particles. 


Avogadro’s Hypothesis Study Guide

# Introduction
We have all seen sculptures like these in our day-to-day lives, either in a museum or a historical place. Did you know that these sculptures are made up of plaster of Paris? If you go to the hardware store and ask for Plaster of Paris, the shopkeeper will give you a bag of white powder. Now you must be wondering how a powder becomes so hard and strong enough to be sculpted into a statue. It is possible through a process called "setting of plaster." Anhydrous POP is in powder form, but the hydrated form is a hard solid that can be shaped into any form we like. 

![POP](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5JFHfKOOdoUE8njefKlQqy/98c67d72166473227c554751da526458/1024px-John_Cranch_-_Plasterer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
[Source](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/John_Cranch_-_Plasterer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/1024px-John_Cranch_-_Plasterer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)

That being said, let’s learn in detail about different hydrates and their dependence on water content (percentage water in hydrate). 

## PERCENTAGE OF WATER IN A HYDRATE 

- Any substance having water in the form of H2O molecules, generally but not necessarily with defined water content in the mixture, is referred to as a hydrate. Hydrates are crystalline materials that shed their essential structures when the bound water is removed. 

- The exclusions are zeolites (aluminum silicate minerals or substituted derivatives that contain water indefinitely), comparable clay minerals, specific clays, and metallic oxides, which already have varying percentages of water in their hydrated configurations. Zeolites forfeit and acquire water transiently with no or little structural change. 

- Hygroscopic or deliquescent compounds naturally absorb moisture from the atmosphere to create hydrates. Efflorescent materials shed water of hydration or crystallization to become un-hydrated (anhydrous) substances. Water absorption and release (by heating, reducing pressure, or other mechanisms) are often reversible events associated with color changes. 

- Transition metal-containing ionic compounds are frequently brightly colored. It's interesting to note that the hydrated phase of a chemical is usually a different hue than that of the amorphous state, which contains no water. 

![color chemical](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6hrnJFgeyhAiOWCcBQZAEn/6cf54c71199f3c72f37f1c3aa6148265/800px-Cobalt_II_-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg)
[Source](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg/800px-Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg)							

## STEPS TO FINDING THE FORMULA OF A HYDRATE 
__1. Calculate the volume of water that has escaped the compound:__

It enables us to calculate the quantity of water in the hydrate and the weight of the anhydrate. We achieve this by deducting the anhydrate's mass from the hydrate's mass. It is the same as the volume of water. 

__2. Convert the amount of water in liters to moles.__

To acquire moles of water, divide the quantity of water by the molecular mass of water. 

__3. Convert the remaining weight of anhydride to moles.__

To determine the moles of anhydrate, divide the weight of anhydrous by the molar mass of anhydrate. 

__4. Determine the mole ratio of water to anhydrate.__

In most cases, you'll have more fluids than anhydrate; therefore, divide total moles of water by the mole of anhydrate. It is how you find out what your mole ratio is. 

__5. To construct the formula, just use the mole ratio.__

__Example:__

The water was driven off from a 15.67 g sample of a hydrate of magnesium carbonate by heating without decomposing the carbonate. We reduced the mass to 7.58 grams. How do you calculate hydrate's formula?

Solution:

__1) Calculate how much water has been driven off:__

15.67 − 7.58 = 8.09 grams of water

__2) Calculate moles of magnesium carbonate and water:__

MgCO3 ---> 7.58 grams / 84.313 grams/mol = 0.0899 mol

H2O ---> 8.09 grams / 18.015 grams/mol = 0.449 mol

__3) Calculate the whole number molar ratio:__

MgCO3 ---> 0.0899 mol / 0.0899 mol = 1

H2O ---> 0.449 mol / 0.0899 mol = 5

MgCO3 · 5H2O  

# Conclusion 
- A hydrate is a chemical in which each formula unit contains a single or even more water molecules attached to it. 
- Hygroscopic or deliquescent compounds naturally absorb moisture from the atmosphere to create hydrates. 
- Transition metal-containing ionic compounds are frequently brightly colored. 

## FAQs:  
__1. How do you find percent H2O?__

The proportion of water in the mixture is calculated by dividing the mass of water lost by the initial amount of hydrate utilized. The percent water is calculated by multiplying this percentage by 100. 

__2. What is the percent by mass of water in the hydrate?__

Percent of water in a hydrate is a water molecule that is stoichiometrically bonded into a crystal, expressed as a percentage by mass.  Water is often not directly bound to a metal cation, even if contained within a crystal. Hydrates are crystalline salts that include hydration water. 

__3.  What is the mass of water?__

18.01528 g/mol is the mass of water according to standard norms. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Percent of Water in a Hydrate!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise it makes studying much more fun! 😎*  

## SOURCES:
1. Percent of Water in a Hydrate https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/percent-of-water-in-a-hydrate/lesson/Percent-of-Water-in-a-Hydrate-CHEM/ Accessed 18 February 2022
2. Hydrates: Determining the Chemical Formula From Empirical Data https://study.com/academy/lesson/hydrates-determining-the-chemical-formula-from-empirical-data.html Accessed 18 February 2022
3. Hydrate. https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrate Accessed 18 February 2022 

A hydrate is a chemical in which each formula unit contains a single or even more water molecules attached to it.

Percent Of Water In A Hydrate Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION 

It’s not miraculous, yet still surprising to think that, in a way, the rock-hard ice,  the soft water, or the unnoticeable air are all forms of water, yet they tend to be so different. The basic nature of all these different phases of water is the same, but the only difference is how the particles are packed up. Lego toys can be another wonderful example. Like a building block, a lego can be put in countless ways to make countless objects. It all depends upon their packing. 

### PARTICLE MODEL 

Even with the most powerful microscope, we can't see the particles that make up everything around us. These particles are organized and move differently in each of the three states of matter. For example, water particles seem to be the same size, shape, and chemical makeup, whether solid (ice) or gaseous (steam), but how they travel and are ordered differs depending on the condition.

![Particle Model](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6cEgODYKnsR5hS8iIv4e3e/4ed9c4f5babe98e488a5b147243fa612/750px-ParticleModelSolidLiquidGas.png)
[Source](https://keystagewiki.com/index.php/Particle_Model)

The four main principles of the particle diagram are: 

- Particles make up all substances.
- The particles are drawn to one another (some strongly, others weakly).
- The particles are in motion (have kinetic energy).
- The particles travel more as the temperature increases (their kinetic energy increases).

### SOLIDS

The particles are grouped in a regular arrangement with very little space between them (think army ranks). Powerful forces keep their particles connected, and they can only oscillate around a fixed point. Solids have a high density and a definite volume and dimension.

![Particle-model - Solids](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1Hd4WXLGvyGZNCLbvKQ8Uq/f11540c47f50ad61332f5ff65d90de24/what-is-the-particle-model.gif)
[Source](https://owlcation.com/stem/what-is-the-particle-model#gid=ci026c7398700627f6&pid=what-is-the-particle-model)

The particle diagram of a solid has the following properties:

- They are closely packed.
- They are arranged.
- Particles do not overlap.
- Particles are so the same radius.  

### LIQUIDS 

Liquids, just as solids, have a set capacity but not a definite shape. The liquids will flow to take on the form of the bottle's bottom. Although all liquids can flow, some are slightly thicker than others. The stronger the tensions between the liquid molecules, the heavier (more viscous).

![Particle-model - Liquids](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5eko3za0eSMsTQ8TeKnBLR/f3f4b173e12ba46311e75fe96875cffa/what-is-the-particle-model.gif)
[Source](https://owlcation.com/stem/what-is-the-particle-model#gid=ci026c7398700627f6&pid=what-is-the-particle-model-MTc0NjQxNTgzODQzNDUyOTE4)

The particle diagram of the liquid has the following properties: 

- Particles are present in a concentration at the bottom.
- All particles are in contact with  one another.
- Slots between particles are too narrow to accommodate another particle.
- By pushing on other particles, particles construct 'links' over gaps.
- Particles are placed in such a way that they cannot be crushed into a smaller space.
- The particles are all the same size.
- There are no overlaps.

### GASES 

The particles in gases are spread out and organized in a random pattern. The kinetic energy of this form of matter is the greatest of the three traditional states, and there are essentially no bonds between the particles. The particles constantly travel on all sides, slamming into each other and the container's sides, resulting in pressure.

![Particle-model - Gases](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6D0bzLGlahoRCi2SUZ7Fna/52432bd7f4345295c2e2adfd05a39665/what-is-the-particle-model.gif)
[Source](https://owlcation.com/stem/what-is-the-particle-model#gid=ci026c7398700627f6&pid=what-is-the-particle-model-MTc0NjQxNTgzNTc1MTQ4NTM0)

The particle diagram of gases has the following properties:

- The particles are dispersed at random.
- The particles do not have a 'dice pattern.'
- Particles can be seen moving in parallel lines (arrows).
- Particles are of the  same diameter.
- There are no overlaps.

## CONCLUSION:

- The basic nature of all molecules in all three different phases is the same, but the only difference is how the particles are packed up.
- These particles are organized and move differently in each of the three states of matter.
- How the particles  travel and are ordered differs depending on their current state.

### FAQs:

__1. What is a particle diagram?__

The diagrammatic representation of elements and compounds and their composition with different types of balls and how they connect is called a particle diagram. 

__2. How do you draw a particle diagram?__

A particle diagram can be drawn to represent different colored balls as atoms or particles and a box to show their composition and movement. 

__3. What is the particle model?__

The particle theory of matter is a model that describes how atoms in a substance are arranged and move. This model explains solids, liquids, and gases' physicochemical characteristics.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Particle Diagram__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES:

1. Identifying a Chemical Formula from a Particle Diagram. https://www.ck12.org/c/chemistry/chemical-symbols-and-formulas/enrichment/Chemical-Formula-from-Particle-Diagram/. Accessed 1 Feb 2021.
2. What Is the Particle Model: A Guide to Solids, Liquids and Gases. https://owlcation.com/stem/what-is-the-particle-model#gid=ci026c7398700627f6&pid=what-is-the-particle-model-MTc0NjQxNTgzNTc1MTQ4NTM0. Accessed 1 Feb 2021.
3. The particle model. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3gxdxs/revision/1. Accessed 1 Feb 2021.


Particles, the building blocks of matter, have different compositions depending upon their state.


 Particle Diagram Study Guide

### Lesson Objectives:

- Define Avogadro’s law
- Describe the relationship between the amount of gas, n, and the volume, V, of its container at a constant pressure and temperature
- Solve problems using Avogadro’s equation
- Derive Avogadro’s law from the ideal gas law

---

## Introduction

![breathing](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/hfTvdzCAcHJju91Pdl4p0/ef6a7487cfa1e24f86f59f318b95cb65/proper-breathing-process.jpg)

[Source](https://getvipcare.com/blog/proper-breathing-how-you-might-be-doing-it-wrong/)

Did you know that every time you breathe in you’re demonstrating Avogadro’s law in action? The law states that the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature. In basic terms, when the number of gas particles increases, the volume of the space the gas occupies increases proportionally. 

When you take a breath in, you’re breathing in gas particles from the air around you. The addition of these gas particles increases the volume of your lungs as they expand. This expansion keeps pressure constant and the temperature of the air remains the same as well. Thus, as per Avogadro’s law, an increase in particle concentration leads to an increase in volume when pressure and temperature are held constant.

---

### What is Avogadro's law?

The law is named after Italian scientist Amedeo Carlo Avogadro, who conveyed that __two different ideal gasses occupying the same volume at a given pressure and temperature will contain the same number of atoms or molecules.__

Avogadro’s Law states that the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature. 

Avogadro’s law is linked with the __ideal gas equation__ since it connects factors like pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of substance for the given gas.

---

### Avogadro’s Law Formula & Derivation

For a given mass of ideal gas, the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature. The mathematical representation of Avogadro’s law is:

__V = k ྾ n__	or	__V1/n1 = V2/n2__

Where:

- *V is volume*
- *k is a constant*
- *n is the number of gas particles in moles.*

Avogadro’s law can be easily derived using the ideal gas equation:

__PV = nRT__

Where:

- *P is the pressure exerted by the gas on the container wall*
- *V is the gaseous volume*
- *n is the amount of gas in moles*
- *R is the universal gas constant*
- *T is the absolute temperature of the gas*

Because Avogadro’s law states that temperature and pressure remain constant, we can replace them with the constant k to translate it into the algebraic expression:

__V/n = k__

When we rearrange this equation, we find:

__V = k ྾ n__

From this equation we can see that as the number of gas particles increases, so does the volume. Let’s try out a practice problem to see how it works.

![graph](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4ks3NbCvfi9qAbApjzkYQn/14d8eabfa0ba0ff670c9ee3afff05f5c/avogadros-law-graph-volume-mole.png)
[Source](https://chemistrygod.com/avogadros-law)

---

### Sample Problem: Avogadro’s Law 

At a constant pressure and temperature, 10.0 L of a gas contains 1.125 moles. If the amount of gas is increased to 1.342, what new volume will result?

__Step 1: Define the variables__

- *V1 = 10.0 L*
- *V2 = ?*
- *n1 = 1.125 mol*
- *n2 = 1.342 mol*

__Step 2: Choose an equation__

For the purpose of this calculation, let’s use the equation format V1/n1 = V2/n2.

__Step 3: Calculate__

V1 ÷ n1 = V2 ÷ n2
V1 × n2 = V2 × n1
10.0 L × 1.342 mol = V2 × 1.125 mol
V2 = (10.0 L × 1.342 mol)/1.125 mol
V2 = 11.929 L

The new volume of the gas is __11.929 L__.

---

## Molar Volume 

As Avogadro’s Law states, the ratio of the gaseous substance amount and the volume remains constant when the values of pressure and temperature are constant, and this ratio is denoted by k. Hence,

__K = (RT)/P__

Under standard pressure and temperature 
T= 273.15k and P= 101.325 kiloPascals 
Thus, 

The volume of given one-mole gas at STP 

= (8.315 J.mol-1.K-1)(273.15k)/(101.325kPa)

__=22.4 liters__

---

## 💡 Summary 
- Avogadro’s law states that the total number of atoms or molecules of any gas is directly proportional to the gaseous volume occupied at constant pressure and temperature.
- Avogardro’s equation is written as V = k ྾ n or V1/n1 = V2/n2.

---

## 🧐 FAQs 

__1. What is Avogadro’s gas law formula?__ 

Avogadro’s Law specifies that the total number of molecules or atoms of gas remains directly proportional to the volume that the gas occupies at constant pressure and temperature.

__2. What Is Avogadro’s law class 11?__

Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gasses, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Avogadro’s Law!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

---

## Sources 
1. Avogadro’s Law:https://byjus.com/chemistry/avogadros-law/.Accessed 9th March 2022.
2. Avogadro’s Law:https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/avogadro-law.Accessed 9th March 2022.
3. Avogadro’s Law: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/09%3A_Gases/9.06%3A_Avogadro's_Law.Accessed 9th March 2022.


Avogadro’s law formula is a gas law, and some regard it as Avogadro’s hypothesis or principle. Read on to know more about this.