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# INTRODUCTION

In May of 1801, while considering some of Newton’s experiments, Young came up with the fundamental idea for the double-slit experiment to exhibit the interference of light waves. The demonstration would deliver evidence that light was a wave, not a particle. Let us learn more about the double-slit experiment and understand double-slit diffraction.

## ABOUT THE CONDUCTION OF  THE DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

![double slit](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2EDimphGNjMUQ7kLwssK2p/10b6020feebd5300a1133373092b1552/main-qimg-818d7b1ab9f8272b006589d41a3e431f)
[Source](https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-a-double-slit-and-a-single-slit)

In the first version of the double slits experiment, Young didn’t use 2 slits but rather a single slim card. He covered a window with a piece of paper with a tiny hole in it. A thin beam of light passed through the hole. He held the card in the light beam, breaking the beam in two. Light passing on one side of the card interrupted light from the other side of the card, creating fringes, which Young observed on the opposite wall.

Young also used his data to calculate the wavelengths of different colors of light, coming very close to modern values.

## WHAT IS DOUBLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION?

- Double slit diffraction definition refers to an experiment in which light is permitted to diffract through slits that produce fringes or wave-like interference patterns on an opposite screen. 
- Double-slit diffraction is the observed outcome where light passing through two slits produces beams that interact with each other. 
- Analyzing the interference pattern and equations explains the observed phenomena with light passing through double-slits.

## CALCULATING THE WAVELENGTH FROM A DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT

![calculate](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/6zJ0u0P588PCZ8sGuCRyau/427713faf2004d1fe26babdcc4e928e8/Image3.gif)
[Source](https://personal.math.ubc.ca/~cass/courses/m309-03a/m309-projects/fun/Slits.html)

To calculate the wavelength of the double-slit interference pattern, you need to measure a few distances. From the figure, 

* L is the distance between 2 slits, 
* The line in the middle is known as the central line; 
* x is the length from the central line, 
* d is the distance between two slits. 
* The rest of the lines present are known as the fringes.

While experimenting, you can observe there are two triangles, a black triangle and a red triangle. If they are of the same ratio of corresponding sides, i.e., if x and L of the red triangle are the same as the x and L of the black triangle, then the double-slit diffraction formula is: 

**λ= xd / L**

# SUMMARY
* Light is a wave and produces an interference pattern in the double-slit experiment. 
* The interference pattern consists of alternative bright and dark lines; the bright lines are called fringes.
* In a double-slit experiment, the wavelength can be calculated using this equation: λ= xd / L.

## FAQs

**Q. What does the double-slit experiment show?**

The double-slit experiment is a demonstration that light and matter can display attributes of both classically defined waves and particles. It also shows the double-slit diffraction intensity.

**Q. Is diffraction grating double slits?**

A diffraction grating is a large number of evenly spaced and distributed parallel slits. The light passing through is diffracted in a pattern the same as a double slit, with bright regions at various angles.                                       

**Q. What happens when the slit width is doubled?**

When the slit width is doubled, the energy falls per sec on the screen is doubled, but the angular width of the central maxima (Δθ=b2λ) is halved.                                                      

**Q. What is the difference between single and double slits?**     

In single slit diffraction, light outstretches in a line perpendicular to the slit. But in double-slit diffraction, light diffracts when passing through the slits, but the light from those then interferes and produces an interference pattern on the screen. This is the double-slit diffraction pattern difference between single and double slits.

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about **Double Slit Diffraction**! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## SOURCES 
1. Double-slit Diffraction: [https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.8/primary/lesson/double-slit-interference-phys/](https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.8/primary/lesson/double-slit-interference-phys/) Accessed 14th April 2022.

Double-slit diffraction, meaning showcases the effect of light passing through two slits that interact with each other.

Double Slit Diffraction Study Guide

# INTRODUCTION

When we examine light waves, we learn about their many features like, how they reflect back in the process of reflection, how they change direction in the process of refraction, and how they interfere with other light waves. But, what do you believe happens when light waves collide with a gap? Will it go straight through the gap, or will it shift its direction? Let's investigate.

## DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT AND SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION 

- The curving of light waves around a tight turn of an obstacle or an opening is known as the __diffraction of light__. 
- The single slit diffraction’s meaning is that an alternating dark and bright pattern can be seen when light is imposed on a slit with a size corresponding to the wavelength of light. 
- When light strikes the gap, __secondary wavelets__ form at each point, as per Huygens' rule. 
- These wavelets start out in a phased manner and then disperse on all sides. 
- Each one of them covers a specific path to reach any location on the screen. 
- Due to the path difference, they reach diverse phases and may interact either constructively or destructively.

## THE SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT

- The single-slit diffraction experiment is similar to the double-slit performed by Thomas Young in 1801. 
- Here, monochromatic light is projected through a slit of finite length. 
- The only differences between a single slit and a double-slit experiment are the __diffraction patterns and the intensity graphs.__

![slit](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/UGa5f8YHlKG74GdODZStU/11819d112eff25b706ff4499721f0a92/content_6_181965.png)
[Source](https://byjus.com/question-answer/draw-the-intensity-pattern-for-single-slit-diffraction-and-double-slit-interference-hence-state-two/)

The double-slit experiment patterns differ from the single-slit diffraction pattern as the __width and intensity reduce__ as we move away from the central maximum. 

## SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION FORMULAS 

![single](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3L73624wLcTMAetsiPgccs/a64af9d93748215fcc828b19dfe065bc/sinslit.png)
[Source](http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/sinslit.html)

The path difference between two rays at an angle θ is given as ∆L= a/2 sin θ (valid only when D>> a ) 

The bright fringes appear at θ → sin ^-1 ( ± 3ℷ/2), sin^-1 (± 5ℷ/2) 

The dark fringes appear at a sin θ = mℷ

The angular width of the central maximum is 2θ = 2λ/a

The linear width of central maxima is  2λDa.

Here,

∆L is the path difference 

 λ is the wavelength of the projected light 

D is the distance between a slit and a screen 

 a is the  slit width 

And θ is the angle made with the undeviated direction of light. 

# SUMMARY 
* Diffraction is the curving of light waves around a tight turn of an obstacle or an opening. 
* In a single slit experiment, an alternating dark and bright pattern can be seen when light is imposed on a slit with a size corresponding to the wavelength of light. 
* The only differences between a single slit and a double-slit experiment are the diffraction patterns and the intensity graphs. 

## FAQs

**Q. What is the condition for constructive interference?**

For the constructive interference to take place, the phase difference between the two waves must be an even multiple of pie. 

**Q. What is the condition for destructive interference?**

For the destructive interference to take place, the phase difference between the two waves must be an odd multiple of pie.

**Q. What is temporal coherence?**

The average correlation between the value of a wave and itself delayed by any pair of times is known as temporal coherence.

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Single Slit Diffraction!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## REFERENCE
1. Single-slit Diffraction: [https://www.ck12.org/physics/single-slit-diffraction/lesson/Single-Slit-Interference-PHYS/?referrer=concept_details](https://www.ck12.org/physics/single-slit-diffraction/lesson/Single-Slit-Interference-PHYS/?referrer=concept_details) Accessed 14th April 2022.
2. Diffraction: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction](https://en.w) Accessed 14th April 2022.

The pattern of diffraction of light in the single-slit experiment is different from those formed by double slits. 


Single Slit Diffraction Study Guide

# INTRODUCTION

Stars are not spread about in space at random; instead, they form galaxies. Our Milky Way is the galaxy in which the Sun is located. However, how do you imagine astronomers studying these? The answer is the photoelectric effect. The faint light from the stars, which is too faint to be recognized and analyzed, is strong enough to fall on the photoelectric cell's cathode and release electrons whose intensities and energy are understood as the intensities and temperatures of those stars. 

![galaxy](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4JoWDsICOTKsM5zHQ5mfpD/22b4b62125e3e174a17dc510f260f851/milky-way-2695569_1920.jpg)
[Source](https://www.industrytap.com/how-astronomers-estimate-the-weight-of-the-earth-and-even-distant-stars/52334)

## PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 

- The definition of the photoelectric effect states that it is a phenomenon in which light causes electrons to be expelled from a metallic surface when exposed to the light of an appropriate frequency. 
- The expelled electrons are called photoelectrons. 
- The law of conservation of energy is the basic principle of the photoelectric effect. 
- Albert Einstein was the first to successfully explain the laws of the photoelectric effect after years of research in this field. 
- He came to the conclusion that this effect was caused by light energy being transported in discrete quantized packets called photons. 
- A photoelectric effect diagram is given below.

## THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT EXPERIMENT 

- The __photoelectric effect__ can be explained by the experiment wherein the electrons on the metal body absorb energy from the incident light and then use it to counteract the attractive forces that bind them to the metallic nuclei. 
- The photons( the 'particles' of light that make up the visible spectrum) that strike the metal's surface must have enough energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the nuclei in order for the photoelectric effect to occur. 
- The __threshold energy for the photoelectric effect__ is the least quantity of electricity required to remove an electron from a metal.

![experiment](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7tMcBH3dmcIaQ1mYPzUkT3/e66e142be75ede80d599952fb99ca1b5/Schematic-diagram-of-photoelectric-effect-setup.png)
[Source](https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-photoelectric-effect-setup_fig14_348212745)

- The __photoelectric effect experiment__ cannot be explained using the wave model of light. 
- However, the particle nature of light, which can be viewed as a stream of electromagnetic energy particles, can explain this behavior. 
- The photoelectric effect can be explained by __Planck's equation E = h𝜈 = hc/λ.__

# SUMMARY 
* The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that causes electrons to be expelled from a metallic surface when exposed to the light of an appropriate frequency.
* The electrons at the surface of the metal absorb energy from the incident light and then use it to counteract the attractive forces that bind them to the metallic nuclei. 
* The photoelectric effect can be explained by Planck's equation:

**E = h𝜈 = hc/λ.**

## FAQs

**Q. What is the photoelectric effect?**

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that causes electrons to be expelled from a metallic surface when exposed to the light of an appropriate frequency.

**Q. Give an example of the photoelectric effect?**

The generation of electricity in solar cells is an example of the photoelectric effect.

**Q. What is the reason for the photoelectric effect?**

Conservation of mass is the main reason for the photoelectric effect.

**Q. What is the charge of a photon?**

A photon is a massless, stable particle with no electric charge. 

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the __Photoelectric Effect!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## REFERENCE
1. Photoelectric Effect: [https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.5/primary/lesson/photoelectric-effect-chem/](https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.5/primary/lesson/photoelectric-effect-chem/) Accessed 14th April 2022.
2. Photoelectric Effect: [https://www.britannica.com/science/photoelectric-effect](https://www.britannica.com/science/photoelectric-effect) Accessed 14th April 2022.

It’s a fact that the world of quantum developed because of Einstein’s contribution to the photoelectric effect.


Photoelectric Effect Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

In the mornings, it's always lovely to see a ray of sunlight gleaming through our windows. But have you ever considered what light is and how it travels from the sun to us? Well, this was a significant question in the history of science, and the solution includes the names of some of the world's most brilliant thinkers. Let's look at this in more detail.

![light](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/61uIFD9SkXW5HIzInRuPAs/13ddfcad331dd95b926b564d3a8b7390/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJjb250ZW50Lmhzd3N0YXRpYy5jb20iLCJrZXkiOiJnaWZcL2xpZ2h0LTEtYS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjI5MH19fQ__)
[Source ](https://vocal.media/longevity/amazing-benefits-of-sunlight-through-a-window)

## THE HISTORY OF THE WAVE-PARTICLE THEORY

Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton offered opposing ideas about the behavior of light in the 1600s. Huygens and Newton proposed a __wave theory and particle theory__, respectively. But Newton's fame aided in the acceptance of his theory, and for more than a century, Newton's hypothesis reigned supreme.

Complications occurred for the particle theory of light in the early nineteenth century. Thomas Young's __double-slit experiment__ revealed clear wave activity, implying that the wave theory of light prevailed over Newton's particle theory.

It was in 1905 that  Albert Einstein hypothesized that light travels as __discrete bundles of energy__ in his article explaining the photoelectric effect.

## THE WAVE-PARTICLE THEORY 

The de Broglie hypothesis explored the question of whether such duality manifested itself in the matter. He stated that __for a particle of momentum mv, the wavelength is given by ℷ=h/mv__. 

Matter, like light, appeared to have __both wave and particle qualities__ when the conditions were correct. The wave-particle theory definition states that in Quantum theory, matter and light are made up of minute particles having wave characteristics. 

The __key difference between the wave and particle theory__ is that entities like electrons and photons, according to particle theory, are minuscule objects that do not spread beyond a narrow volume, whereas electrons and photons are packets of field energy, as per the wave theory.

![wave particle](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4WpadsRFlah8pnsRPHXSsr/82d2173b8e8d2aae6706470fc5c1a1a1/gggg1.png)
[source](https://semesters.in/wave-particle-duality/)

## EINSTEIN'S LIGHT QUANTUM HYPOTHESIS 

![photon](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/bjgmxg1E1rHlCTsCYOCWV/eaf65d5c2678a225619c76560cd29d6f/Photoelectric_effect_summary.svg)
[Source](https://isaacphysics.org/concepts/cp_photoelectric_effect)

- In 1905, Einstein was capable of explaining the photoelectric effect, which had previously been unfathomable when the light was viewed as a wave. 
- Light, according to Einstein, is a particle whose wavelength corresponds to its energy. 
- To grasp this phenomenon, consider photons as energy-containing (clusters of) particles. 
- Particles with high energy and the ability to emit electrons are referred to as blue light. 
- Particles with low energy that are unable to emit electrons produce red light. 
- Because light possesses the attributes of both a wave and a particle, it was given the name "photons (light quanta)" in this fashion.

## SUMMARY 
* In 1905  Albert Einstein hypothesized that light travels as discrete bundles of energy in his article explaining the photoelectric effect.
* Matter, like light, appears to have both wave and particle qualities when the conditions are correct.
* For a particle of momentum mv, the wavelength is given by ℷ=h/mv. 
* Because light possesses the attributes of both a wave and a particle, it was given the name "photons (light quanta)" in this fashion.

## FAQs

**Q. What is the wave-particle duality theory?**

the wave-particle duality theory is a  Quantum theory that states that  matter and light are made up of minute particles having wave characteristics

**Q. Who proposed the wave-particle theory?**

Albert Einstein proposed the wave-particle theory.

**Q. Which process describes the particle nature of light?**

The photoelectric effect describes the particle nature of light. 

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Wave-Particle Theory!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## REFERENCE
1. Wave-Particle Theory: [https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-2.0/section/18.4/primary/lesson/wave-particle-theory-ms-ps/](https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-2.0/section/18.4/primary/lesson/wave-particle-theory-ms-ps/) Accessed 14th April 2022.

The dual nature of the wave particles examines the inability of the classical ‘wave’ or ‘particle’ concepts to fully describe the quantum behavior. 

Wave-Particle Theory Study Guide

# INTRODUCTION

It's always awe-inspiring to observe the planet's colorful wonders. One such stunning sight is the Rainbow Mountain in Peru's Andes. Hikers frequently embark on a challenging climb to see the thick rainbow stripes of the skillfully placed mineral formations. The appearance of colors also frequently makes us question how and why we are able to perceive them. Let's delve deeper into the subject to find out the answer.

![hill](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4H8aliPlSZGANX9WfqTskN/21fd9928811136a8c2e98df283fa2d03/Vinicunca.jpg)
[Source](https://www.peru.travel/en/masperu/vinicunca-the-beautiful-mountain-of-seven-colors)

## LIGHT AND COLOR 

The meaning of light and color is not restricted to the way we use them in everyday language. 

- __Light__ is electromagnetic radiation (consisting of electric and magnetic fields) that moves the fastest in a vacuum. 
- On the other hand, __color__ is electromagnetic radiation having a specified range of wavelengths visible to the naked eye. 

- The __electromagnetic spectrum__ is a collection of electromagnetic waves as per the frequencies and wavelengths. 
- Here we’ll only talk about a part of this collection of electromagnetic waves. 

## Visible Light Spectrum

- The visible light spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that can be seen with the naked eye. 
- That basically translates to the colors that the human eye can see. 
- The observed color is determined by the wavelength of light, which is linked to frequency and energy. 
- The below image touches upon some characteristics of visible light.

![spectrum](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3tI7g8wkzGW2an4hY5nceY/8e5c36cc4266f4e67ab2f6f973497138/ems-1_en.jpg)
[Source](https://www.uib.no/en/hms-portalen/75292/electromagnetic-spectrum)

## WHITE LIGHT 

- __White light__, which encompasses several or all of these wavelength ranges, is the most common kind of light with which we contact. 
- Due to optical refraction, projecting white light through a prism leads the wavelengths to curve at varying angles. 
- The light that results is separated into the visible color range consisting of seven colors (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red). 
- A __rainbow__ is created when airborne water particles function as the refractive material.

## PERCEPTION OF COLORS
Our perception of light is primarily based on the wavelengths reflected by an object. When we gaze at a yellow t-shirt, for example, it absorbs other wavelengths of light and reflects the yellow light, allowing us to see it as yellow.

## PRIMARY COLORS 

- White light can also be made by mixing only three distinct light frequencies.
- Any three colors of light that, when combined with the correct intensity, produce white light are known as primary colors of light. 
- Red (R), yellow (Y), and blue (B) are the most frequent primary colors, as they correspond to the sensitivities of the three color-sensing cones in the eye.

# SUMMARY 
* Light is electromagnetic radiation consisting of electric and magnetic fields.
* Color is electromagnetic radiation having a specified range of wavelengths visible to the naked eye.
* The visible light spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that can be seen with the naked eye. 
* White light is the combination of all the lights in the visible light spectrum. 
* Red (R), yellow (Y), and blue (B) are termed primary colors. 

## FAQs

**Q. Does electromagnetic radiation have color?**

Yes, visible light is electromagnetic radiation that has color. 

**Q. What is light as electromagnetic radiation?**

Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by an eye. 

**Q. What are the colors of the electromagnetic spectrum?** 

The visible light spectrum in the electromagnetic spectrum has 7 (Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red ) colors in it. 

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Light and Color!__ Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## REFERENCE
1. Light and Color:[https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.3/primary/lesson/color-ms-ps/](https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.3/primary/lesson/color-ms-ps/) Accessed 14th April 2022.
2. The Physic of Light: [https://www.pa.uky.edu/~sciworks/light/preview/color4aa.htm](https://www.pa.uky.edu/~sciworks/light/preview/color4aa.htm) Accessed 14th April 2022.

Visible light is a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be sensed through our eyes. 

 Light And Color Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION

We are surrounded by a variety of electromagnetic waves that we are unaware of! Although we can't see them with our naked eyes, we make extensive use of these waves in our daily lives, whether it's listening to music on the radio, reheating pizza in the microwave, or even examining the appearance of a shattered bone. Let's look at this collection of electromagnetic waves in more detail.

## ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

In simple words, the electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation. It is a set of frequencies, wavelengths, and photon energies ranging from below 1 hertz to above 1025 hertz, with wavelengths ranging from a few kilometers to a part of an atomic nucleus' size.

## THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays are the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are arranged in the order of decreasing frequency and rising order of wavelength.

An electromagnetic spectrum diagram is given below. 

![wavelength](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4bsZBh8js2fRKxz2TmW4UY/13c193cd423ce461c470726bb4b13ef2/Electromagnetic-spectrum-wavelengths-1536x876.jpeg)
[Source ](https://www.science-sparks.com/what-is-the-electromagnetic-spectrum/)

**1. Radio waves:** 

A radio is a device that catches radio waves broadcasted by radio stations and is mostly used for television and mobile communication.

**2. Microwaves:**

Microwaves emit this type of radiation, which aids in-home/office cooking. Astronomers use it to figure out and demonstrate an understanding of surrounding galaxies and stars.

**3. Infrared:**

It's commonly found in night vision goggles. The infrared light emitted by human skin and items with heat can be read and captured by these gadgets.

**4. X- rays:**

An x-ray machine can be used by a professional to take a picture of our bones or teeth. It is used by airport security staff to inspect and check luggage.

**5. Gamma-rays:** 

In the health world, it has a wide range of applications. Gamma-ray imaging is a technique for looking inside our bodies. Surprisingly the universe is the biggest source of this! 

**6. UV radiation:**

It is mostly produced by the sun. It tans the skin and creates burns. UV radiation is emitted by hot materials in space.

**7. Visible light:** 

It is the light that can be seen with the naked eye. Visible light is produced by light bulbs, stars, and other objects.

## SIGNIFICANCE 

The major significance of the electromagnetic spectrum is that it can be used to categorize and organize electromagnetic waves as per their varied frequencies or wavelengths.

Below is a detailed electromagnetic spectrum chart containing the wavelengths and the frequency range. 

![wave](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/50NAqvmPzVASGolPSATPd8/9c0cf28e2a383c1c01de4bba73d0acfb/Electromagnetic-SpectrumRev1.jpg)
[Source ](https://lasp.colorado.edu/home/cassini/education/em-spectrum/)

# SUMMARY 
* The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.
* Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays are the 7 types of electromagnetic waves. 
* The electromagnetic spectrum’s significance is that it can be used to categorize and organize electromagnetic waves as per their varied frequencies or wavelengths. 

## FAQs

**Q. What is the Significance of Electromagnetic Spectrums?** 

The electromagnetic spectrum’s significance is that it can be used to categorize and organize electromagnetic waves as per their varied frequencies or wavelengths.

**Q. What are the 7 types of electromagnetic waves in the spectrum?**

Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays are the 7 types of electromagnetic waves in the spectrum.

**Q. How is the electromagnetic spectrum arranged?**

The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged as per the frequencies and the wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves. 

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about the Electromagnetic spectrum! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## REFERENCE
1. Electromagnetic Spectrum: [https://www.ck12.org/physics/electromagnetic-spectrum-in-physics/lesson/Electromagnetic-Spectrum/?referrer=concept_details](https://www.ck12.org/physics/electromagnetic-spectrum-in-physics/lesson/Electromagnetic-Spectrum/?referrer=concept_details) Accessed 14th April 2022.
2. Electromagnetic Spectrum: [https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-spectrum](https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-spectrum) Accessed 14th April 2022.

The significance of the electromagnetic spectrum is to categorize and organize electromagnetic waves as per their varied frequencies or wavelengths. 

Electromagnetic Spectrum Study Guide

# INTRODUCTION

Have you seen electric wires spiraled through a non-magnetic rod? As you switch on electricity, the rod behaves like a magnet. You can see the application of electromagnetic waves in electric water heaters, microwaves, etc. All these instruments are used by us everyday. So, let us know more about electromagnetic waves and their different formation. 

## DEFINITION

- Electromagnetic waves can be defined as waves that are multiplied by simultaneous periodic variations of magnetic and electric field intensity. 
- The magnetic field and the electric field are at right angles to each other. 
- The electromagnetic waves can be easily shown in a graph. 
- The graphical representation of electromagnetic waves is as follows:

![waves](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4zYU4fQ3OgxrEI6PI1BZP8/6c3f8f67121df7a14844e6a1617783e4/STScI-01F9MEJ8XZ6W7B6YJQHKWZH2Z4.png)
[Source](https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/01F8GF5HE8JPQG4GTVFG6EPC23)

The waves are shown in a sinusoidal graph, and the graph contains an electric and magnetic field that are at right angles to each other. By seeing the graph, it can also be said that electromagnetic waves are components of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. 

## FORMATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

- You will observe that in an __electric field__, the positive charges accelerate in the direction of the field. 
- On the other hand, the negative charges go to the other side of the field. 
- It occurs due to the external force being exerted on the electric field.

- Whereas in a __magnetic field__, it is formed due to the moving charged particles. 
- Here, a force is exerted on the moving particles, and the charges are always perpendicular to the direction of the velocity. 
- Hence, this helps to change the direction of the velocity of the moving particles but does not change the speed of the particles. 

- Therefore, __electromagnetic waves__ are produced by accelerated particles. 
- They are nothing but particles moving in free space. 
- The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is c. i,e. speed of light. 
- If the oscillation of the charged  particles is f and it produces an electromagnetic field wave with a frequency f, then,

**λ = c/f**

## ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

![spectrum](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/3BgOT9UePL9ixAoQlds4gY/37668e73b280961fa79ef6b9555ac8f1/EMSpectrumcolor.jpg)
[Source](https://sites.google.com/a/coe.edu/principles-of-structural-chemistry/relationship-between-light-and-matter/electromagnetic-spectrum)

Electromagnetic waves are classified according to their frequency for according to their wavelength

**λ = c/f**

The wavelength ranges of different lights are as follows,

For visible light – approx. 400 nm to approx. 700 nm

For violet light – approx. 400 nm

For red light – approx. 700 nm

# SUMMARY
* The invention of electromagnetic waves has proven to be a very useful recent invention.
* It occurs due to the presence of an electric field and magnetic field. 
* The formula for the electromagnetic wave is λ = c/f.

## FAQs

**Q. What are electromagnetic waves?**

Electromagnetic waves are produced when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic field. The electric field and the magnetic field are at right angles to each other. 

**Q. How are electromagnetic waves formed?**

When the electric field and the magnetic field come in contact with each other, the accelerated particles produce electromagnetic waves.

**Q. Name the property of an electromagnetic wave that is dependent on the medium in which it is traveling. What is the sequence for the propagation of electromagnetic waves?**

Velocity is the property of an electromagnetic wave that is dependent on the medium in which it is traveling.

There are three types of electromagnetic wave propagation: Ground wave propagation, skywave propagation, and space wave propagation. The propagation of electromagnetic waves depends upon the frequency range.  

**Q. What is the wavelength of the photon of infrared light with the frequency of 2.5 x 1014 Hz?**

  c = 3 x 108 m/sec

  f =  2.5 x 1014 Hz = 2.5 x 1014 s-1

  λ = c/f = 3 x 108 / 2.5 x 1014 

                  = 1.2 x 10-6 m

The wavelength of the photon of the infrared light is 1.2 x 10-6 m.

_We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about **Electromagnetic waves**! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!😎_

## SOURCES
1. Production of Electromagnetic Waves: [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/24-2-production-of-electromagnetic-waves/](https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/24-2-production-of-electromagnetic-waves/) Accessed 14th April 2022.
2. What are Electromagnetic Waves? [https://earthsky.org/space/what-is-the-electromagnetic-spectrum/](https://earthsky.org/space/what-is-the-electromagnetic-spectrum/) Accessed 14th April 2022.

The definition of electromagnetic waves is it occurs when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic field. It is created due to multiple vibrations present in the system. 


 Electromagnetic Waves Study Guide

# INTRODUCTION

We’re all familiar with gas stoves and electric skillets. These devices have a source of heat over which a frying pan or a vessel is placed. About a decade ago, induction hobs or stoves exploded into the market that could perform the same heating as a conventional stove but without a visible source of heat. What if we told you that these slick devices have more in common with the electrical transformer on your street than they do with cooking tops!? So how is the one used for cooking and the other in power grids? Let’s find out! 

![Faradays-law-of-induction](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/1kUaJ4Sm7fS92ClUr72jhU/9ad012542fc501f4a98cafeccca2b8fc/1645264649_95_What-is-Faradays-law-of-induction.jpg)
[Source](https://gruposaedal.com/what-is-faradays-law-of-induction/)

## FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION

Michael Faraday made some cool discoveries when experimenting with conductors and magnets in 1830. Subsequently, he proposed the laws of electromagnetic induction, which explained the phenomenon of how changing magnetic flux induces a current in a conductor. Faraday’s laws of induction are divided into two laws. The first one explains how an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in a conductor, and the second law quantifies the EMF.

## WHAT DOES FARADAY'S LAW STATE?

__FARADAY’S FIRST LAW__

According to Faraday’s first law, an EMF is induced in a conductor placed in a changing magnetic field. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction. 
It’s important to remember that electromagnetic induction only occurs when the magnetic field moves or changes in strength. In a closed circuit, the EMF acts like a battery and creates a current that can do work. 

![Faraday-s law of electromagnetic induction](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5MpZA9a5L7jXXxsQG3ltQE/8bb751ac0498f65dde57dfcad67b9c1e/Faraday-s_law_of_electromagnetic_induction.png)
[Source](https://edurev.in/studytube/Overview-Generation--Transmission-and-Distribution/7a98fa7f-9c75-4601-a2be-87b300ab02a6_t) 

Consider the setup in the figure above. Every time the magnet is moved in and out of the coil, the galvanometer shows an EMF. The same principle applies to electric generators that use rotating magnetic fields to produce power. 

__FARADAY’S SECOND LAW__

According to the second faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of the induced EMF in the conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field. Considering the above example, the faster the magnet moves, the more EMF it generates. 

Mathematically it can be expressed as:

                   ε = - N ΔΦ/Δt

ε is the magnitude of the induced EMF
N is the number of turns on the coil
ΔΦ is the change in magnetic flux
Δt is the change in time

The EMF has a negative sign because the induced current flows in a direction to oppose the changing magnetic field, as explained by Lenz’s Law.  

## APPLICATION OF FARADAY’S LAW

![APPLICATION OF FARADAY’S LAW](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7FDAjbBS9pMrYim4lvjGE3/613a497690e0f7d7c19859f3d8161ff7/induction-cooker-principle.jpg)
[Source](https://www.cleanfuture.co.in/2020/09/15/induction-stoves-an-energy-efficient-clean-energy-based-cooking/) 

Going back to the induction stove in the introduction, the device produces heat by inducing a current in the cooking vessel. It uses rapidly alternating magnetic flux to generate eddy currents that heat the vessel because of electrical resistance. An electrical transformer alternating current in the primary coil produces a changing magnetic field in the secondary coil. This induces an electrical current in the secondary coil; however, the purpose of a transformer is to increase or decrease voltage.

# CONCLUSION:

- According to Faraday’s first law, an EMF is induced in a conductor placed in a changing magnetic field.
- According to the second faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of the induced EMF in the conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field.

### FAQs:

__1. What is Faraday's law?__

Faraday's law physics describes electromagnetic induction in a conductor placed inside a changing magnetic field. 

__2. What are Faraday's 1st and 2nd laws?__

- According to Faraday’s first law, an EMF is induced in a conductor placed in a changing magnetic field.
- According to the second faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of the induced EMF in the conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field.

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Faraday’s Law__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! We promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎

## SOURCES: 

1. 22.2 Discovery of Electromagnetism. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-2.0/section/22.2/primary/lesson/discovery-of-electromagnetism-ms-ps/. Accessed 28 Jan 2022. 
2. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. https://www.electricalclassroom.com/faradays-law-of-induction/. Accessed 28 Jan 2022. 
3. What Is Faraday’s Law of Induction?. https://www.livescience.com/53509-faradays-law-induction.html. Accessed 28 Jan 2022. 
4. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. https://byjus.com/physics/faradays-law/. Accessed 28 Jan 2022.  


Faraday’s laws of induction are divided into two laws. The first one explains the generation of EMF, and the second one explains the magnitude of the EMF. 

Faraday's Law Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION
Light sources are all around us. From the average incandescent bulb to the screen and flashlight in your phone, many gadgets produce light. However, there is a device that produces a special type of light.  Have you ever played with a tiny laser pointer and wondered how it could travel for over a mile while the most powerful flashlight in your house can barely make it to the end of your street? Lasers are way cooler than you can imagine; let’s find out how! 

![Laser](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/Ge6QOJTXI0gCdVd8LG6em/911d776c4348f6fedf16b6ff0e4f9f22/skylaser_4.jpg)
[Source](https://www.geeky-gadgets.com/sky-lasers-125mw-laser-pointer-review/) 

### WHAT IS A LASER?

![Various classifications of lasers ](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/2NzRqBfo5rCoFv1CEzOKaa/6b3643a59ad4ffcbe64b58aa940ed780/Various_classifications_of_lasers.png)
[Source](https://www.ijert.org/research/experimental-investigation-of-wheel-alignment-tool-using-laser-level-mini-beam-led-light-IJERTV10IS030206.pdf)

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Lasers are devices that produce a highly directional beam of light. Flashlights also produce some directionality by focusing light, but they’re nothing like a laser beam! 

In a flashlight or any other ordinary light source, the photons have different wavelengths and are all out of phase (different points in their cycle). It can also be said that ordinary light is incoherent. Think of it as a battalion of soldiers running all around instead of marching towards the enemy. 

![Physics-emission-and-absorption-of-light-quanta](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4x5v0hwkMXgvWIghl03kiX/c00db5c3eada21e53700b3d6026fd9fa/Physics-emission-and-absorption-of-light-quanta.png)
[Source](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283237429_Towards_Information_Lasers)

### HOW DO LASERS WORK?

The principle of laser is what is called as stimulated emission of radiation. Einstein considered what would happen if an atom already in an excited state gets struck by a photon of the same energy as the previous photon, which sent the atom into the excited state. 

He worked out that the atom would emit a photon of the same energy and go down to a lesser energy state in a process called stimulated emission. Now two photons are perfectly in sync- they have the same wavelength and same phase (same point in their cycle). These two photons can strike other excited atoms to produce more photons in the same wavelength and phase. 

The light rays thus produced are monochromatic (same color or wavelength) and coherent. In a laser device, this light is made to follow a path such that it becomes highly directional. Think of it like the battalion marching in a straight line in tight formation!

![Mirror - laser medium](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/5VawcQAMa3CMFk5NVeKAET/c56d718ed076da9dd322bedc62bd2bcd/Mirror.gif)
[Source](https://www.norwegiancreations.com/2018/04/laser-101-pt-1-the-basics/) 

### PROPERTIES OF LASER

A laser beam has these four properties:

- Monochromatic: consists of only one wavelength of light.
- Highly directional: Laser beams have a very light spread over long distances.
- Coherent: all the photons in the beam are in phase. 
- High output: The light can carry a lot of energy. 

### WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LASERS?
Based on the medium used, lasers are classified into four types: 

- Solid-state laser
- Gas laser
- Liquid laser
- Semiconductor laser

## CONCLUSION: 

- Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. 
- Production of coherent light in laser is done using stimulated emission.
- Laser beams are highly monochromatic, directional, and coherent.

### FAQs:

__1. What are the three types of lasers?__

The three most common types of lasers are: 

- Semiconductor lasers
- Solid-state lasers
- Gas lasers

__2. How do lasers work?__

Lasers work through the process of stimulated emission of radiation. A source of energy such as an electrical discharge or flash lamp is used to excite a gain medium that produces coherent light. The light is then amplified using mirrors to produce a laser beam.

__3. What exactly is a laser?__

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. 

__4. What do lasers do to your body?__

Depending on the output power of the laser, the light can affect your skin and eyes. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Lasers__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎 

## SOURCES: 

1. 13.6 Lasers. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/13.6/primary/lesson/lasers-phys/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022. 
2. Laser. https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/physics/laser/differenttypesoflasers.html. Accessed 10 Feb 2022.  
3. THE FIVE MAIN TYPES OF LASERS. https://www.laserax.com/blog/types-lasers. Accessed 10 Feb 2022.  
4. Lasers. https://byjus.com/physics/laser/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022.  

The principle of laser is called stimulated emission of radiation. Learn how laser beams are produced and the properties of laser light. 


Lasers Study Guide

## INTRODUCTION: 

The amazing designs that the iron creates when it comes into contact with a magnet are a lot of fun to watch. These designs are formed due to the magnetic field of the magnet. And not just for playing; magnets have a very important role in our lives. Whether it be your audio speaker or a hospital scanning machine, magnets are widely used around us. Let's learn more about magnets and magnetic fields in more detail. 

![Magnet](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4daDtpz7jyzTQQNR9bFt4o/23eed4709d4e49d504aeee0000168151/GettyImages-147220256-56a8282.jpg) 
[Source](https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/do-magnets-wear-out/)

### MAGNETS: 

- A magnet is an item or substance that generates a magnetic field. This magnetic field is subtle, yet it is accountable for a magnet's most remarkable property: a force that attracts or repels similar ferromagnetic elements such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and other magnets. 
- A permanent magnet is a structure constructed of magnetized material that generates its permanent magnetic field. For example, a refrigerator magnet keeps notes on the refrigerator door.  

![Permanent magnet](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4iS3cqQFNm9NeZMtM7BixT/5e38d071e534752c9a275ec6147fe32b/80E6962E-AA67-4B05-98AECEC7569A0C0F_source.jpg)
[Source](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-dont-magnets-work-on/)

- The term ferromagnetic refers to materials that can be magnetized and strongly attracted to a magnet.

### MAGNETIC FIELD: 

- The magnetic field is the zone wherein the force of magnetism works around a magnetic substance or a circulating electric charge. 
- The magnetic impact on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials is described by a magnetic field, which is a vector field. A moving charge experiences a force perpendicular to both its speed and the magnetic field in a magnetic field. 

![MAGNETIC FIELD](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4Ur0CKrkiMxaN5z5sYiyhv/a9ab63f79593b35627a529caba91a0ac/magneticFieldLines1.gif) 
[Source](https://ece.northeastern.edu/fac-ece/nian/mom/work.html)

### ELECTROMAGNET: 

- An electromagnet is a magnet whose magnetic field is generated by a current flow. 
- Wire wrapped into a coil is used to make electromagnets.  
- A current flowing through the wire produces a magnetic field focused in the aperture, which serves as the coil's core.  
- When the electricity is switched off, the magnetic field vanishes.  
- The wire loops are frequently twisted around a magnetic core formed of a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic substance such as iron that focuses the magnetic flux and produces a stronger magnet. 

![Electromagnet](//images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/7be5AqMjYGFENyozbSWGXi/cc715a39e95d10fae08456ea7b7c178a/electromagnets.jpg)
[Source](https://www.eclipsemagnetics.com/resources/difference-between-electromagnet-permanent-magnet/)

## CONCLUSION:

- Electromagnets are magnets whose magnetic field is generated by a current flow. 
- A magnet is an item or substance that generates a magnetic field. 
- The magnetic field is the zone wherein the force of magnetism works around a magnetic substance or a circulating electric charge. 

### FAQs: 

__1. What is the difference between magnets and electromagnets?__

A permanent magnet is a structural item that becomes magnetized and generates its magnetic field. Whenever an electric current is permitted to run through a coil of wire of an electromagnet, it functions as a magnet. Electromagnets need an electric current to function as a magnet. 

__2. What is the difference between magnets and magnetism?__

A magnet is a mineral or a metal bar that can attract certain metals to itself. Magnetism, or the force of magnets, is a fundamental natural force similar to electricity and gravity. Magnetism has a large range of applications. This indicates that a magnet doesn't have to contact an item to draw it. 

__3. What are electromagnets and magnets used for?__ 

Electronic equipment, such as turbines, generators, electromechanical solenoids, switches, loudspeakers, hard drives, MRI machines, scientific equipment, and magnetic separation devices, employs electromagnets. 

*We hope you enjoyed studying this lesson and learned something cool about __Magnets and Electromagnets__! Join our Discord community to get any questions you may have answered and to engage with other students just like you! Don't forget to download our App to experience our fun, VR classrooms - we promise, it makes studying much more fun!* 😎  

## SOURCES: 
1. 19.1. Electromagnet. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-physics-flexbook-2.0/section/19.1/primary/lesson/electromagnets-phys/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022.
2. 21.1. Magnet. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-2.0/section/21.1/primary/lesson/magnets-ms-ps/. Accessed 10 Feb 2022.


A magnet is an item or substance that generates a magnetic field. An electromagnet is a magnet whose magnetic field is generated by a current flow. 
