Introduction: Macroevolution is evolution at or above the species level, and it’s the outcome of hundreds of generations of microevolution. Macroevolution can entail evolutionary changes in two or more interacting species, such as co-evolution, or it might involve the development of one or more new species. Co-evolution occurs when the evolution of two or more…

Introduction: The concept of variation is central to Darwin’s hypothesis, and it claims that the many features and adaptations that distinguish species also explain how species originated and diverged over time. Variations in organisms can be seen within domesticated species and across species in the wild world. Origin of species Darwin’s theory consisted of two…

Introduction: Evolution occurs in reaction to external factors that cull out those who are least suited to surviving those pressures, enabling those who are more suited to thrive, live and reproduce. However, since humans have altered their habitats so drastically, some scientists have questioned whether natural selection affects our species. Evolution as an ongoing process…

Introduction: Phylogeny is a branch of biology that studies the evolutionary history of all life on earth, particularly in terms of lines of descent and interactions among large groupings of creatures. The phylogenetic hypothesis states that all living species have a common ancestor. Therefore, let’s learn more about phylogeny. Evidence for specific phylogenies: Paleontology, comparative…

Introduction: Viruses are microscopic, infectious agents that infect all life forms. They do not have cytoplasm or organelles like those present in cells, making them acellular. Viruses cannot replicate independently and must depend on the host cell’s metabolic system. However, viruses do not increase or re-infect each other, and instead, new viral components are generated…

Introduction: The earliest rocks having fossil evidence of life on earth are at least 3.5 billion years old. Therefore, we can understand that life originated at least 3.5 billion years ago. Let’s know more about the answer to when did life begin on earth in this article, along with other interesting facts. Origin of the…

Introduction: Did you know that you have an entire ecosystem living inside you right now? By definition, an ecosystem is the interaction between all living things in an area and their environment (it’s kind of a boring definition, but we promise ecosystems are actually really cool 😎). At this very moment, there are trillions of…

Introduction: Biotechnology is a wonderful science involved in developing new and innovative products. These products are derived from different biological existing organisms or systems. Biotechnology has constantly evolved over the years. From a simple process of making sourdough bread or setting yogurt to making fabric using biological organisms’ biotechnology has come a long way. It…

Introduction: Mutation, recombination during gamete development, and environmental variables all cause variations. Genetic variation leads to differences in alleles, therefore, having different genotypes. To understand the process of variations within a population, let’s dive into this article. Genotypic variance: Changes in the chromosome or genes and different alleles of the same gene generate a genotypic…

Introduction: STIs, or sextually transmitted infections occur when an infected person passes their body fluids on to a healthy person. This level of intimacy usually occurs during sex – thus the name! STIs are often caused by bacteria or viruses. This guide explores common infections caused by these pathogens, and resulting STD symptoms. Bacterial STIs…

Introduction: Although the potential to procreate and recuperate may have been lost before this time, the death of the last individual of the species is typically regarded as the moment of extinction. There are different types of extinctions with various causes. Let’s learn the impact of extinction and what causes it. Effects of extinction: When…

Introduction: The human body is a complex and minutely organized structure of unique cells, all working together to accomplish specific functions required for sustaining life. Proteins, vitamins, and minerals are essential nutrients necessary for the nourishment, maintenance, and functioning of the human body. Hormones in the body regulate the balanced functioning of various organs, including…

Introduction Protists are unicellular eukaryotic organisms and they are grouped in a separate kingdom named ‘Protista.’ Protists are primarily aquatic organisms present in marine or freshwater environments. They are also present on damp terrestrial areas, decaying leaves, etc. They are autotrophic, heterotrophic, or both, and they reproduce asexually and sexually. Usually, harmful protists are animal-like…

Introduction: The cnidarians are part of the animal kingdom, and examples are jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, and hydrozoans. The species can be found throughout the world and are quite diverse. When the cnidarian gets damaged, these can regenerate their body parts, making them immortal. Facts about cnidarian Even though the scientific name is ‘Cnidaria’, they…

Plant Evolution Like any other living being, plants also undergo a series of evolutionary steps. Over time they adapted, changed, and became what we see today. The evolutionary history of plants has been preserved in fossils. These fossils date back to some 400-500 million years back. It is believed that the evolutionary development of the…

Plant Classification The classification of plants is based on their evolutionary and genetic relationship. Plant taxonomy is a branch of science that keeps changing because new species are found each day! Plant classification is done in various ways. High-level classifications include vascular and nonvascular plants. The plant categories like vascular plants are further categorized into…

Plant Growth Growth is regarded as one of the most fundamental characteristics of a living being. It can be defined as a permanent and irreversible rise in the sizes of one or all of its parts. Metabolic processes follow growth. For example, the enlargement of a leaf is called growth. What is Growth and Development…

Comparitive Anatomy Scientists always try to find more and more evolutionary relationships between species. But why do they do that? They are in search of a common ancestor, of course. Scientists have come so far by understanding the concept of evolution that organisms undergo for their survival. You must’ve seen animals with the same body…

Autotrophs and Heterotrophs According to their energy processes, organisms are classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs. Autotrophs are creatures that can synthesize energy-containing organic compounds from inorganic raw materials utilizing simple energy sources such as sunlight. Plants are the best example of autotrophs since they use photosynthesis. All other species must consume sustenance in lipids, carbs,…

Plant Reproduction and Life Cycle All plants are living things with a life cycle, similar to humans and other animals. The plant life cycle can be described through their reproduction cycles. Wilhelm Hofmeister demonstrated that alternating generations is a feature that is common among plants. The plant reproductive cycle switches between haploid and diploid generations,…

Fish Evolution and Ecology Fishes are cold-blooded creatures that breathe through gills, live in water, and move with fins. They have a streamlined body that helps them swim without much resistance in the water. They also have fins to assist them in swimming. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic organisms. They have a segmented body, and…

Introduction Roundworms or nematodes are tiny parasitic organisms that can thrive, grow and multiply within the intestines of humans, dogs, etc. They may cause infections like fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, etc. They are called parasites since they are typically found in other living organisms as the host. Roundworms As the name suggests, Roundworms are round…

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance The Gregor Mendel pea plant experiment was conducted between 1856 and 1863. Mendel selected several specific pea traits and performed cross-pollination or artificial pollination in pea lines with stable trait inheritance that were continuously self-pollinating. Why was Pea Plant Selected for Mendel’s Experiments? The pea plant is simple to grow and…

What is the Placenta? Ever wondered how a baby breathes inside the womb or feeds itself? Inside the placenta, exchanges of nutrients and blood take place. A fully grown placenta comprises a dense network of blood arteries from both the fetus and the mother. Microscopic gaps close yet separate the fetal and maternal arteries. This…

Introduction to Leaves Any flattened and green outgrowths from the stems of vascular plants are called leaves. They are the first and primary sites of photosynthesis, the process by which plants manufacture food and energy to help nourish and sustain themselves. What is a Leaf? Leaves are the lateral appendages of the vascular plant systems….

What is Behavioural Genetics? Behavior is organized into recognized patterns, referred to as behavioral “units.” The same animal will repeat the same movement pattern repeatedly, and different individuals of the same species will act in very similar ways. Cyclic Behavior There are two basic types of cyclic behaviors: circadian rhythms and migration. Let’s go over…

Chordate Definition “Chordates” is the term used to refer to those animals, including human beings/homo sapiens, that belong to the ‘Phylum Chordata.’ This class possesses a notochord (a cartilaginous, softer version of the spinal cord) in one or all the stages of their lifetime. This phylum includes large animals ranging from humans to all vertebrates…

Introduction We all respond to stimuli from the environment, and how we respond to a stimulus represents our personality and mental state. This is called behavior. There are two types of animal behavior: innate and learned. Innate behaviour Definition Innate behaviour is often uncontrolled and automatic. It usually occurs in response to a particular stimulus….

Introduction: When and where certain genes are activated, and the amount of protein or RNA product generated is dependent on multiple factors. They are determined by a complex series of interactions between genes, RNA molecules, proteins (including transcription factors), and other components of the expression system. The process of turning a gene on and off…

Introduction Nonvascular plants are non-flowering plants that do not have specialized tissues like vascular tissues to transport water and minerals to the rest of the plant body. They are low-growing forms of plants that are found growing in moist habitats. Examples of nonvascular plants include mosses or Bryophytes, liverworts or Hepaticophyta, and hornworts or Anthocerophyta….

Introduction: Angiosperms are flowering plants — one of the vital groups of plants with seeds inside themselves. Angiosperms represent approximately 80% of all the known green plants now living. Explain the reproduction process of angiosperms. Reproduction in flowering plants starts with pollination, the transference of pollen from anther to stigma on the same flower or…

Introduction Like all living things, plants grow, reproduce, and go through a life cycle. The life cycle of a plant explains the many stages of the plant’s existence, beginning with seed and ending with a mature plant. Let’s go through them together below! The Life Cycle of a Plant The Plant Cycle can be broadly…

Introduction Plant tissues are groups of cells that are similar in their origin and their structure and perform similar functions. They are a collection of similar cells that perform organized functions for their plants. They are specialized for a unique purpose, and they can be combined with other tissues creating organs like flowers, stems, leaves,…

Introduction Vascular plants are also called tracheophytes. Tracheophyta is derived from the Greek word trachea, which means a duct–a channel in plants. The vascular plants are well-ordered, as are the land plants, including blooming vascular plants and ferns. They have developed a sophisticated network of vascular systems that run throughout the plant body, allowing for…

Introduction Spermatophytes are seed-producing plants. It was a huge event when vascular plants evolved to produce seeds, and it was possibly just as significant as the emergence of vascular tissues in plants! Gymnosperms (seeds in cones) and angiosperms (seeds in capsules) are the two main categories of seed plants (seeds in ovaries of flowers). The…

Introduction: Every cell in our body contains DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid. It is the carrier of genetic instructions that makes every species unique and drives the development and functioning of an organism. DNA Structure The structure of DNA is a double helix, and it looks like a twisted ladder. A pair of nitrogenous bases make…

Introduction Plants live in nearly every part of the earth. To live and survive in different environments, they have developed adaptive capabilities that allow them to survive and reproduce under difficult conditions. Unlike animals, plants can’t run, fly, or swim towards food or against danger, making these adaptations critical for survival. Let’s talk about some…

Introduction In 1678, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch microscopist who co-discovered sperm, believed semen consists of parasitic material. He thought that sperm had nothing to do with reproduction of new life. But, with time and experiments, he understood that each sperm consists of an embryo. Gametogenesis is derived from two Greek words, “gamete” and “genein.”…

Introduction Sodium potassium pump, also called Na / K pump or Na / K ATPase is a protein pump found in the cell membrane of neurons. It transports sodium and potassium ions through the cell membrane at a ratio of 3 sodium ions for every two introduced potassium ions. Pumps help stabilize membrane potentials and…

Introduction When we look at the world population, we notice that every individual has a unique physical structure and behavioral pattern. If we move away from individuals and go by a blanket categorization, we will find that people have varying skin colors depending on the climatic conditions, among other shared traits. Ancestry can dictate certain…

Introduction Chromosomes consist of a strand of DNA wrapped around a protein called histones and segregated in two halves by a centromere. Chromosomes carry important genetic information and if this information is incorrect, it can give rise to a lot of illnesses that are characterised as genetic disorders. Genes carry all the unique genetic information…

Introduction The iconic Mendelian laws, which are also known as Mendelian genetics, were proposed by the biologist, mathematician, and meteorologist Gregor Johann Mendel. Though they first came into the light in 1865 and 1866, Mendelian laws are still widely applied and play a vital role in genetics today. What are Mendelian Genetics? Mendelian Genetics were…

Introduction: Genes carry the trait information in an individual that determines the activity and physical features. Chromosomes are present within the nucleus of the cell in a condensed form, and they are made of DNA and proteins. There are only 23 pairs of chromosomes present in each cell. However, the number of genes present in…

Introduction Mendel performed garden pea hybridization experiments between 1856 and 1863. During that time, he selected several specific pea traits. He performed cross-pollination/artificial pollination in true breeding pea plant lines that had stable trait inheritance and were self-pollinating continuously. Mendel used a pea plant as a test subject and looked for seven distinct features in…

Introduction Mutations are defined as permanent changes that take place in the DNA sequence of any living organism. Changes occur in the arrangement of the four base pairs, namely A, T, G, and C. Most cells can potentially recognize a mutation and repair it before it gets fixed. Often mutations are harmless, unless they result…

Youtube Guide: Lesson Objectives: Understand the properties and functions of DNA Learn about the packaging of the DNA helix Understand the differences between the two major different types of DNA DNA: DNA was first identified in the late 1860s by Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher. Cambridge University scientists James Watson and Francis Crick studied and understood the…

Introduction: Reproduction, without any doubt, is termed necessary for the survival of a species. It is a basic fundamental living feature and a biological process through which parents develop offspring. Organisms exist due to reproduction, which can be divided into sexual and asexual reproduction. Each comes with unique features, specifications, and advantages. Vertebrates, like humans,…

Key Points The cell spends most of its life in interphase preparing for mitosis. Mitosis is the process of splitting a cell into two daughter cells. Cytokinesis is after mitosis when the cell actually splits. The Life of a Cell A cell spends most of its life growing and replicating its DNA. This phase called…

Introduction Cell division is a very important aspect of our life, and almost every living being on this planet relies on it to increase its population. Let’s learn about what happens during this crucial process and why it’s so important below. What is cell division? Cell division occurs when a parent cell duplicates itself into…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 Introduction: A glucose molecule, with the chemical formula C6H12O6, transports a packet of chemical energy that is precisely the perfect size for transit and absorption by cells. Glucose is the “deliverable” kind of energy in your body, being transported…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 Introduction: A chloroplast is an organelle found within the cells of plants and some algae. It is responsible for photosynthesis, which is the process by which solar energy is transformed into chemical energy for growth. A chloroplast is a…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 Introduction: The world of genetics is fascinating. The amount of information stored in a human body cell is marvelous. Everything is packed concisely and accurately within unique structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are involved in cell division and replication….

What is Humoral Immunity? The word “Humors” means body fluids, and humoral immunity is derived from immunity mediated by extracellular fluids which contain macromolecules such as antimicrobial peptides, antibodies, etc. It is also known as antibody mediated immune response or humoral immune response. It targets and kills foreign bodies or pathogens present in the lymphatic…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 Introduction All biological functions rely on membrane proteins. Cells can’t operate without them since they are built up of amino acids. ‘Lys’ and ‘Arg’ are two kinds of interfering amino acids that sit on the membrane surface and may…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 Introduction Wetlands are regions that get submerged in water because of the runoff from the nearby water body, a stream, a river, or a sea. Wetlands can be freshwater or saltwater wetlands, depending on the water source. The characteristics…

Introduction The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that genetic variance in a population will remain stable across generations in the absence of evolutionary forces. In other words, the rule states that if the frequency of distinct alleles in a population is already known, it is feasible to predict the anticipated frequencies of genotypes in a population under…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices) 🤩 Introduction The cytoplasm consists of everything inside the cell membrane excluding the nucleus. This means that the components of the cytoplasm include everything from the mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, etc to the jelly like fluid that surrounds…

Introduction Cookbooks with a bunch of delicious recipes are super useful to whip up a dish that is equally delicious each time it is made. The same idea can be applied to chemical reactions! How can we note down chemical reactions so that you can go through them later? Read on to find out everything…

Introduction We have all seen our mother making tea or coffee in the kitchen. The first thing for making tea is to boil the water. Boiling the water can be done by anyone, but if we challenge you to boil water faster, how will you do it? You can increase the heat by turning the…

Introduction The precipitate of a white solid, silver chloride, is produced when aqueous silver nitrate is introduced to a solution containing potassium chloride. When two soluble salt solutions are mixed, a precipitation process occurs, resulting in the production of an insoluble salt. The precipitate is the insoluble salt that separates from the solution. But what…

Introduction Dalton’s atomic theory was crucial in the development of contemporary atomic theory. However, one of his fundamental assumptions was eventually proven to be false. Atoms, according to Dalton, are the tiniest units of matter, consisting of tiny, hard spheres that cannot be subdivided anymore. This belief remained until physics investigations revealed that the atom…

Introduction An atom consists of subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and a nucleus. The electrons are negatively charged, and they revolve around the nucleus in a designated orbit. As we move higher on the periodic tables, the elements have electrons arranged in orbits far away from the nucleus. The shape of the orbits is also…

Introduction Taking care of children may be stressful at times! When you’re at the market with a little child, it could be a nightmare. The active kid must have a predisposition to stay still and keep consistency, but this is difficult to establish. A child’s attention may be drawn inadvertently to other powerful appealing forces…

Introduction Have you ever wondered what happens to sugar when we mix sugar into the water? Why does it disappear? But as we keep on mixing sugar to the same solution, it ceases to disappear? What if we heat it further?Let’s find answers to all the questions! SOLUBILITY Solubility is defined as the maximum amount…

Introduction Have you seen that there is a layer of rust forming on the surface of any of the metal rods around you? Most often metal surfaces are painted, or a coating is applied to decrease rusting. Have you ever wondered why? It is because the metals get oxidized and develop rust when left untreated….

Introduction The majority of people adore pizza. They don’t merely order “pizza,” as even the most basic pizza will include a topping and cheese – pepperoni, maybe, or something else entirely. Many pizzas, on the other hand, rapidly become more complicated. One may prefer pepperoni and sausage, while another may prefer Canadian bacon and pineapple….

Introduction Have you seen the behavior of different solutions? Has it ever struck you how these solutions behave like this? Well, all the things that you see around you happen due to some reason. If you check out the electrolytic solution, there are two rods present — one rod attracts the negative ions, and another…

Introduction Have you ever taken a sliced apple for your school lunch? If so, you would’ve noticed how it turns brown even though it was fresh, juicy, and crispy while cutting. How about a banana? Why does it turn brown when left in the open? The process they go through is known as enzymatic browning,…

Introduction Ancient astrologers were successful in establishing that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Over the years, the science behind this hypothesis advanced, and we came to an understanding that planets revolve around a star in a definite orbit due to the strong gravitational pull of the star in its solar system. Similarly, physicists, after…

INTRODUCTION Replacements are used in several chemical processes. In compounds, more reactive components replace less reactive ones, and replacement reactions are the name for these reactions. Source REPLACEMENT REACTION When elements in a compound swap locations, this is called a replacement reaction. Ions (electrically charged counterparts of atoms) or ionic compounds are involved in this…

Introduction The ancient Greeks first proposed the idea that the total amount of mass in the universe should be taken as constant. However, it was Antione Lavoisier who was among the first to have actually described the law conservation of mass as a fundamental principle of physics in 1789. The law states that even if…

Introduction We have all seen sculptures like these in our day-to-day lives, either in a museum or a historical place. Did you know that these sculptures are made up of plaster of Paris? If you go to the hardware store and ask for Plaster of Paris, the shopkeeper will give you a bag of white…

Introduction Take an ice cube out of the refrigerator and put it in a bowl at room temperature. What happens? It melts. But the important thing here is that we had no interference during that melting process. It just happened on its own. This is a typical example of a spontaneous reaction. So, wondering what…

INTRODUCTION Have you ever wondered about the small differences in the location of the electrons? How are the charges shifting? Everything is linked with quantum theory. Max Planck, a German physicist, studied the emission of lights by hot objects. Why this phenomenon occurs, all depends upon the quantization of energy. QUANTIZATION OF ENERGY- DEFINITION An…

INTRODUCTION Did you ever wonder about the cause of rusting? It happens due to weathering. What is it? It is the breakdown or dissolution of rocks and minerals on the Earth’s surface. There are three types of weathering. These are- mechanical, chemical, and lastly, biological. WHAT IS MECHANICAL WEATHERING? Mechanical weathering happens due to external…

Introduction What is a valence electron? Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, while the electrons which are mostly present within the inner circle are known as core electrons. Lewis structure helps us determine valence electrons and how it helps any chemical reaction and predict the type of bond.  What…

Introduction Who doesn’t love the Grinch? It’s a Christmas classic, but if you haven’t seen it, it’s about this entity living on top of a mountain who manages to steal an entire town’s Christmas decor in one night (impressive honestly). But then he learns the true meaning of Christmas (presents, obviously) (jk), causing his tiny…

Introduction Every tissue, organ, and muscle in our body plays a role in keeping us alive, barring a few exceptions. But how do they stay active? What gives all of these essential entities the energy required to function? That job falls onto our circulatory system. It not only transports nutrients and oxygen to all parts…

Introduction Aquatic is anything living or growing in, happening in, or connected with water. Aquatic biomes include the life and the living communities within the abiotic factors that are part of the water occupying 70% of the earth. Abiotic factors influencing the water bodies include climate, temperature, rainfall, salt or mineral level, and suspended particles….

Introduction What do your lungs, liver, sweat glands, and kidneys all have in common? Each and every one is part of your excretory system! And we’re sure there’s nothing you’d rather be doing right now than learning about excretion, right? If you’re not too hot on that subject, you’re actually in luck. Because though we’ll…

INTRODUCTION You might have heard that you have to work out and be physically active to burn fat or calories. Have you ever wondered what this “burning” is exactly? Where does this take place? It’s an analogy that is often used. There is no smoldering fire 🔥 inside our bodies. When we work out 💪,…

Introduction: Natural selection is a process in which an organism adapts to its surroundings by preferentially reproducing changes in its genotype or genetic composition. It is a key idea in evolutionary theory. It is frequently referred to as the survival of the fittest, and Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace proposed it. Darwin chose the…

INTRODUCTION Have you ever looked at trees and wondered if the branches at the canopy would fall faster than the branches near the ground? That is because the former has more potential energy than the latter. Source POTENTIAL ENERGY DIAGRAMS The change in potential energy in a chemical reaction could be plotted on a potential…

INTRODUCTION Chemical compound C₄H₁₀ has boiling points of 260 K and 272 K. But how can a compound have 2 different boiling points?It is because C₄H₁₀ exists in different isomeric forms. Let’s find out what are structural isomers and what are stereoisomers! WHAT ARE ISOMERS? The compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements…

INTRODUCTION Look at the image shown below. Do you know that all of those items have something in common? They are all made up of ions! What are these ions? Let’s find out! Source What are IONS? Ions are generated when electrons are added to, or removed from, neutral atoms (containing the same number of…

INTRODUCTION Dissolution is a routine activity. We mix two substances to create a solution every day. For example, imagine your morning tea. You take sugar and put it in a liquid to create a sweet solution. Let’s learn about the science behind it. WHAT IS THE DISSOLUTION PROCESS? To understand dissolution, we must first understand…

INTRODUCTION Every system needs a measuring unit; for example, when your teacher asks you to draw a line of 5 units, you will ask her the scale to draw a line of 5 m or 5 cm or any other unit. Similarly, you will need to know the concentration of substances mixed with a solvent…

INTRODUCTION Have you ever thought about water condensing on the outside of a chilled glass? Or how hot steam turns to water when it settles down on a surface? 🤔 A pure substance typically has three phases or three physical states – solid, liquid, and gas. For example, a cube of ice floating in a…

INTRODUCTION Do you know that Marie Curie, who was awarded the Nobel Prize twice, died because of the discovery she made? And the same discovery is now showing its wonder in the field of medicine. Yes, you read it right. Madame Curie died because of aplastic anemia caused by exposure to radiation. But what kind…

Introduction: Even if you don’t wish to study Julius Caesar’s manuscripts, Latin is a fascinating and valuable language. Consider the word “colligative.” What was the source of that? If you understand a little Latin, you’ll realize that it’s derived from two Latin words that mean “to connect.” This will help you comprehend some of the…

INTRODUCTION When you need to measure any item, you may not always get the measurement right the first time you measure it. Take a tennis court 🎾, for instance, where dimensions have to be accurate. The markings or lines drawn in white need to be painted with total accuracy as the slightest difference can lead…

Lesson Objectives Define Boyle’s law Describe the relationship between the pressure, P, of a gas and the volume, V, of its container at a constant amount of gas and temperature Determine the pressure or volume of a gas before or after a chemical or thermodynamic process using the equation Derive the Boyle’s law equation Introduction…

INTRODUCTION Imagine you are in a room with clothes lying on the floor, on the chair; in short, all you can see are clothes everywhere. Won’t you feel anxious in this huge mess of clothes?Imagine what the scientists would have felt when there were too many elements! Let’s see how they managed to sort out…

Lesson Objectives Define the ideal gas law Describe the relationship between the amount of gas (n) volume (V), pressure (P), and temperature (T) as they relate to an ideal gas Solve problems using ideal gas law equation Derive the ideal gas law from Charles’s, Boyle’s, and Avogadro’s laws Introduction Source With the right information and…

Lesson Objectives: Define Gay-Lussac’s law Describe the relationship between the pressure and temperature of gas at a constant volume and amount of gas. Solve problems using the Gay-Lussac’s law equation Introduction Source Imagine it’s a hot summer day and you’re at the beach with your friends. To protect yourself from the harmful UV rays from…

Lesson Objectives: Define Avogadro’s law Describe the relationship between the amount of gas, n, and the volume, V, of its container at a constant pressure and temperature Solve problems using Avogadro’s equation Derive Avogadro’s law from the ideal gas law Introduction Source Did you know that every time you breathe in you’re demonstrating Avogadro’s law…

Lesson Objectives Define Charles’s Law Describe the relationship between temperature, T, and the volume, V, of its container with a constant amount of gas and pressure Solve problems using the Charles’s law equation Derive Charles’s law INTRODUCTION Source Everyone knows it’s important to check your tire pressure in the winter (and if you didn’t, you…

INTRODUCTION It is nearly impossible to catch a squirrel while it is in action. On top of their flexible small bodies, their motions are exceedingly rapid. They are often characterized to be ‘full of energy. Unlike our many other everyday statements, this is surprisingly correct on chemical and physical levels. The definition of kinetic energy…

Introduction Do you know that the gas cylinder supplied to your homes contains compressed natural gas? What is compression? What does it do to the gas? But if we are going to use natural gas in the end, what is the need to compress it? Let’s find answers to these questions! Compressiblility Compressibility is the…

INTRODUCTION Have you ever wondered by looking at a chemical reaction how it is determined? The big formulas or images will look complex, but if you know the molecular formula, it becomes very simple and easy to understand. Now, the first thing that will strike you is what is a molecular formula, and how is…

Introduction Source If you have seen videos of artillery guns being fired by soldiers, you will notice that the gun kicks back along with firing the shell. Newton’s third law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore the gun recoils with the same momentum as the shell flies forward. But why…

Introduction Source Ever heard of the saying “the higher you climb, the harder you fall”? It’s literally true because the higher you go above the surface of the Earth, the more ‘potential energy’ you accumulate. The same idea is true for a bow and arrow- the further you pull back the string, the faster the…

Introduction Source We’ve all seen collision videos of trains, cars, and bikes on the internet. The most obvious thing we see is that the faster the vehicle is going, the more damage it sustains. Two cars bumping into one another in slow-moving traffic is a fender bender at best. When a car that’s speeding at…

INTRODUCTION Depending on whether chemical compounds conduct electricity through their aqueous solution, they can be divided into two distinct parts, including electrolytes and non-electrolytes. Chemistry definition of electrolyte states that it is a chemical compound that could easily dissolve in an aqueous solution (water), creating ions. The formed ions are the prime source behind conducting…

INTRODUCTION When cars were first manufactured, there was no way to ensure that the people in them remained protected. Later, seatbelts were attached. But, this was not enough to ensure protection. Thus, airbags were manufactured for additional protection of people riding in vehicles. Let us find out how airbags work. Source WHAT ARE AIRBAGS, AND…

INTRODUCTION Whenever you are cooking, you have to chop the vegetables in order to make the recipe. We can’t use the whole vegetable in cooking. Imagine drinking soup, and a whole cauliflower is floating in it. That’s not very desirable. Chopping is basically dividing a given substance into its finer constituents. How about we take…

INTRODUCTION Source The strike of a hammer drives a nail into a piece of wood; by exerting an upward force on the handle, we are able to lift a bucket filled with sand off the ground. In both instances, we are applying energy to get work done. The concept of work is central to physics…

INTRODUCTION Source  Have you ever tried opening a paint can lid using your fingernails only to discover that it’s impossible? However, it becomes effortless when you wedge a screwdriver tip between the lid and the rim of the can to pry it open. What happened there? How were you able to generate the force needed…

INTRODUCTION Source  Have you ever wondered where all the energy that runs the world and the natural processes in the environment comes from? Or where it goes? If your first guess is the sun, you would be right, but, partially. The sun doesn’t create any of the energy that we receive on Earth; it merely…

INTRODUCTION Until Einstein, space appeared featureless and unvarying, as described by Isaac Newton two centuries ago. And time, according to Newton, moved at its own rate, unconcerned with the devices that kept track of it. However, when Einstein looked at space and time, he saw a definite situation stage — spacetime — on which energy…

INTRODUCTION Would you rather use a lawnmower or a pair of scissors to cut your lawn grass? A lawnmower would most likely be the answer. What is the reason for this? The lawnmower will complete the operation in a fraction of the time and thus offer you more power. But, exactly, what is power? Let’s…

INTRODUCTION We all adore excellent popcorn while watching movies. Everyday innovation has brought us to a point where we no longer need to go to the movies to enjoy them. With some microwave popcorn, we can easily enjoy the movies on our television screens.   This ease is due to the study of the physical…

INTRODUCTION It’s always amazing to think about how refreshing a good cool glass of water can make us feel after a long and exhausting day. We’ve all heard that water helps to regulate our body’s temperature and consequently makes us feel better. However, how do you suppose water accomplishes this? We’ll delve into the property…

INTRODUCTION It’s our duty to protect our environment, and metal recycling is one of the numerous ways we can contribute to the preservation of our lovely environment. Recycling metals decreases ore mining waste by 97%, according to statistics. But, how do you believe this occurs? It’s simple: the recycled metal is collected and placed in…

INTRODUCTION Right now, what’s under your feet? Carpet? Tile? Is that a concrete walkway, grass, dirt, and leaves? Thousands of miles of Earth beneath your feet, whether you realize it or not, are made up of a variety of components, including soil, rock, rivers of water, volcanic lava, and solid iron. The Earth’s core is…

INTRODUCTION Fluids that surround an object exert forces on it that is known as the Archimedes’ principle. In the case of an object immersed in a fluid, its net weight is reduced in proportion to the applied force. Greek Mathematician and Inventor Archimedes described it as an effect of immersion in a fluid (gas or…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 INTRODUCTION Have you ever spent a day organizing your room only to find it back in the same state of disarray a few days or weeks later? Nature has the tendency to decline gradually from order to disorder and…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices) 🤩 Introduction Pregnancy is the state of fertilization and development for one or more offspring within a female’s uterus. Pregnancy happens when a sperm fertilizes an egg after it is released from the ovary at the time of ovulation….

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices) 🤩 Introduction Everybody does it, nobody wants to talk about it 💩. While the entire digestive system contributes to the process, one organ does most of the dirty work—the large intestine. Let’s learn about its structure, function, and some…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 INTRODUCTION What is the reaction rate? It is the measure of how fast a chemical reaction proceeds. Consider a combustion reaction like the burning of wood, which takes place in a few hours as compared to rusting which can…

Chapter 12: Electricity Revision Notes Structure of the Atom The nucleus of an atom is positively charged, while the electrons that orbit it are negatively charged. Metals’ valence electrons are free to move around within the conductor, creating an electric current. Charge Charge is a fundamental feature of matter that allows it to exert electromagnetic…

Chapter 11: Human Eye and Colourful World Revision Notes The human eye is a magnificent natural gift to the human body. The human eye has a roughly spherical shape with a diameter of 2.5 cm. Human Eye Components: Source: Cornea: The cornea is the eye’s protective and front layer. A translucent membrane is used to…

Chapter 10: Light: Reflection and Refraction Revision Notes Definition of light Light is an energy type that allows us to perceive things. Light originates from a source and bounces off objects, which our eyes see, and our brain analyses this signal, allowing us to see. Nature of Light Light has the following properties: ray, such…

Chapter 16: Sustainable Management of Natural Resources Revision Notes Reduce, re-use, and recycle Each member of our society may participate in the 3 Rs to conserve the environment: Reduce: We must reduce our consumption and wasteful practises. For example, avoiding wasting food, saving power by shutting off lights, replacing faulty faucets, minimising the quantity of…

Chapter 15: Our Environment Revision Notes Mode of nutrition in animals and plants Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Saprophytes and decomposers Plants, fungi, and microbes that feed on dead and decaying matter are known as saprophytes. Decomposers are organisms that break down organic materials or trash and release nutrients into the soil. Bacteria, worms, slugs, and snails…

Chapter 14: Sources of Energy Revision Notes Why is Energy Conservation Important? The capacity to conduct labour or the entire power produced from our natural resources is referred to as energy. Energy comes in a variety of forms and may be transferred from one form to another. Energy in useable form is dissipated in a…

Chapter 18: Pollution of Air and Water revision Notes AIR POLLUTION Air is made up of a variety of gasses. This mixture contains about 78 percent nitrogen gas and about 21% oxygen. Carbon dioxide, argon, methane, ozone, and water vapour all exist in trace amounts. Air Pollutants: Air pollutants are substances that pollute the air….

Chapter 16: Light Revision Notes Light: Only when an object emits light or reflects light is when the object is visible to our eyes. LAWS OF REFLECTION Source 1] The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. 2] The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence, and the reflected…

Chapter 9: Heredity and Evolution Revision Notes Sexual reproduction The form of reproduction in which two individuals, one male and one female, reproduce together. They create sex cells, also known as gametes, which fuse together to form a new creature. Genes The functional unit of heredity is the gene. In living creatures, each gene regulates…

Chapter 8: How do Organisms Reproduce Revision Notes Reproduction is the process by which all creatures expand their population by multiplying in number. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which only one organism reproduces. On its own, a single creature may replicate two or more organisms. All unicellular species, several multicellular…

Chapter 7: Control and Coordination Revision Notes Movement refers to an organism’s capacity to move certain bodily components. It is termed locomotion when they move from one location to another. Introduction to control & coordination Organisms respond to a variety of stimuli, including light, heat, nutrients/food, and so on. The neurological and endocrine systems of…

Chapter 15: Some Natural Phenomena Revision Notes LIGHTNING AND CHARGES Lightning is an electric spark on a big scale. Rubbing some objects together can charge them: called charged objects. The two types of charges are positive and negative charges. Similar charges repel each other, while dissimilar charges attract each other. Electrical charges formed by rubbing…

Chapter 14: Chemical Effects of Electric Current Revision Notes Good conductors of electricity are materials that permit electric currents to pass through them easily. Poor conductors do not allow this flow. Copper and aluminium are good electrical conductors. Wood, plastic, and rubber are poor electrical conductors. Source Some liquids are good conductors as well. Purified…

Chapter 13: Sound Revision Notes Sound is produced by a vibrating (the to and fro or back and forth motion of an object) body. Vibrations that travel through the air or another medium and are audible when they reach a person’s or animal’s ear is sound. Source In humans, the sound is produced by the…

Chapter 6: Life Processes Revision Notes NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS Nutrition is defined as the process of getting and using food. Mode of nutrition: Nutrition that is autotrophic (All green plants) Autotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which an organism creates its own nourishment. The autotrophic mode of nourishment is followed by…

Chapter 5: Periodic Classification of Elements Revision Notes Dobereiner’s Triads Dobereiner named a trio after arranging a group of three elements with comparable characteristics in order of increasing atomic masses. He demonstrated that the middle element’s atomic mass is about equal to the arithmetic mean of the other two. However, Dobereiner was only able to…

Chapter 4: Carbon and its Compounds Revision Notes Carbon is a very adaptable element. Carbon is found in .02 percent in the form of minerals and .03 percent in the form of all biological structures. Covalent Bond in Carbon Carbon has an atomic number of 6 and an electrical configuration of 2, 4. It takes…

Chapter 12: Friction Revision Notes Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Friction forces always behave in the opposite direction of the applied force. Source Friction is caused by irregularities on the surfaces of the objects in contact, the interlocking of micro-level abnormalities between the two surfaces, and…

Chapter 3: Metals and Non- metals Revision Notes Alloys Alloys are homogenous metal-to-metal or metal-to-nonmetal combinations. Alloy formation improves the material’s desired qualities, such as hardness, tensile strength, and corrosion resistance. A few examples of alloys: Brass is made up of copper and zinc. Bronze is made up of copper and tin. Lead and tin…

Chapter 2: Acids, Bases and Salts Revision Notes Classification of Matter on the basis of a) Composition– elements, compounds, and mixes b) State of matter- Solids, liquids and gases c) soluble matter – suspensions, colloids, and solutions Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixes are two types of mixtures. Covalent and ionic compounds are two different types of…

Chapter 11: Force And Pressure Revision Notes Force: A force is a push or a pull that alters or tends to alter an object’s state of rest or uniform motion and its direction or shape. The interaction between two objects produces a force. Force has both a magnitude (strength of a force) and a direction….

Chapter 1: Chemical Reactions And Equations Revision notes Changes in physical and chemical properties Chemical change – the formation of one or more new compounds with different physical and chemical characteristics. Physical change – the colour or condition of the substance changes, but no new substance is generated. Any of the following observations can be…

Chapter 10: Reaching The Age of Adolescence Revision Notes Adolescence is the phase of life when the body experiences changes that lead to reproductive maturity. Puberty is the period during adolescence during which the sex organs begin to play their role. It brings about changes in the body and growth in the reproductive organs. Puberty…

Chapter 15: Improvement in Food Resources Revision Notes Food provides all of the essential nutrients needed for growth, development, and good health. All nutrients, including carbs, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, are found in food. AGRICULTURE Agriculture is the study or practise of farming, which includes soil cultivation for the growing of crops and the…

Chapter 13: Why Do We Fall Ill? Revision Notes Health is defined as a condition of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. THE IMMUNE SYSTEM The immune system is the component of the body that protects you from diseases, external invaders, and other poisons. Skin and Mucous Membranes The first line of protection is the…

Chapter 14: Natural Resouces Revision Notes The only planet on which life exists is Earth. Land, water, and air are the earth’s resources. Fossil fuels, sunshine, wind, minerals, and other resources are examples of other resources. Living entities in the ecosystem are referred to as biotic factors. The non-living or abiotic components of the biosphere…

Chapter 8: Cell Structure And Functions Revision Notes A cell is an organism’s smallest living element (basic structural unit). Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork for the first time in 1665 using a microscope. Cells come in a wide array of forms and sizes in different organisms (bacteria to ostrich eggs). Some cells are sufficiently…

Chapter 8: Reproduction In Animals Revision Notes Reproduction is the process through which organisms give birth to their own offspring. MODES OF REPRODUCTION Animals reproduce in two different ways: (i) Sexual reproduction and(ii) Asexual reproduction 1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction is the process of combining male and female gametes to produce offspring. The female reproductive…

Chapter 10: Gravitation Revision Notes Gravity is one of the universe’s most fundamental forces. It is crucial not just to the structure of our solar system, but also to the behavior of things on Earth. Gravitation The attraction between two things in the universe is known as gravity. The attraction of items by the earth…

Chapter 12: Sound Revision Notes Sound Generation Sound is generated by the vibrating of things. The quick to and fro motion of an item is known as vibration. All noises originate from vibrating things. Noise is created by irregular, chaotic vibrations. Music may be created through regular, regulated vibration. All sound is made up of…

Chapter 11: Work and Energy Revision Notes Work Done The product of the amount of the force applied on the body and the displacement in the direction of the force is defined as work done on an item. F.s = W The work done is 0 if a force acting on a body causes no…

Chapter 1:Matter In Our Surroundings Revision Notes Matter is anything that takes up space, has mass, and can be sensed by the senses. Air, earth, fire, sky, and water are the five basic elements (the Panchtatva) according to an Indian ancient philosopher. Characteristics of Particles of Matter Made up of minuscule particles. Between particles, there…

Chapter 5:The Fundamental Unit of Life Revision Notes THE COMPOSITION OF A LIVING ORGANISM All living creatures are built up of a basic unit of life known as a “cell.” A cell is a Latin word that means** “a little room.”** The scientist Robert Hooke saw a little compartment in the cork (tree bark) that…

Chapter 4:Structure of Atoms Revision Notes An atom is made up of Protons, neutrons, and electrons. The mass and charge of the atoms are provided by these fundamental components. The proton and neutron make up the nucleus, with the electron circling around it. INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM Atoms Atoms are the fundamental components…

Chapter 3:Atoms And Molecules Revision Notes Atoms and molecules are responsible for the formation of everything from microscopic sand particles to massive black holes. Everything we see around us is made up of atoms, which are the most fundamental unit of matter. It is incredibly minute, measuring between 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers in diameter. LAWS…

Chapter 6: Tissues Revision Notes Tissue is a collection of cells with a common origin, structure, and function. Histology is the study of tissues. A single cell in a unicellular creature (Amoeba) performs all fundamental activities, however, in multicellular organisms (Plants and Animals), there is a division of labour between Plant and Animal tissues. PLANT…

Chapter 8: Motion Revision Notes When an object moves over time, it is said to be in motion. When a body moves uniformly, it covers the same distance in the same amount of time. When a body travels an unequal distance in the same amount of time. It moves in a non-uniform manner. In explaining…

Chapter 2: Is Matter Around Us Pure Revision Notes MIXTURE vs. PURE SUBSTANCE A pure material is made up of only one type of substance. Two or more pure ingredients make up a mixture. Physical processes cannot differentiate pure substances from other substances. Physical procedures can be used to separate a mixture into its constituents….

Chapter 9: Force and Laws of Motion Revision Notes BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORCES Balanced Forces When two or more forces are applied to the same object at the same time, the net force is created. The net force is the sum of all applied forces. The force exert in one direction is added to the…

Chapter 7: Diversity In Living Organisms Revision Notes INTRODUCTION TO TAXONOMY Diversity The occurrence of different creatures in the same habitat or geographical place is known as diversity. Diversity increases the likelihood of a more balanced ecology. Evolution Evolution is the gradual process through which organisms change in response to their demands in order to…

Chapter 4: Materials: Metals And Non-Metals Revision Notes Everything in our environment is classified as metals or non-metals with distinct properties. Metals are robust and long-lasting. As a result, metals are used in practically every industry. Metal examples: Iron, aluminium, copper, calcium, magnesium Non-metal examples: Coal, sulphur, wood, plastic, oxygen, phosphorous PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS…

Chapter 5: Coal And Petroleum Revision Notes NATURAL RESOURCES: Natural resources are all that nature provides and are highly beneficial to humans. Source NATURAL RESOURCE TYPES: (i) Inexhaustible: Some natural resources are limitless and will not be depleted even if they are utilised indefinitely. Sunlight and air are two examples. (ii) Exhaustible: These resources are…

Chapter 7: Conservation Of Plants And Animals Revision Notes Clearing forests (natural and human-driven) and using that land for other purposes is called deforestation. Droughts and desertification are the results of desertification. Source CONSERVATION OF FOREST AND WILDLIFE Biodiversity is the assortment of animals, plants, fungi, and even microbes such as bacteria that constitute our…

Chapter 6: Combustion And Flame Revision Notes Combustion is the process of burning a substance in the presence of oxygen (air) to produce heat and light through a chemical reaction. Combustible compounds such as cooking gas, charcoal, wood, and paper burn in the presence of air. Combustion needs oxygen which is found in the air…

Chapter 3: Synthetic Fibres And Plastics Revision Notes All synthetic fibres are man-made fibres created through processes, including petroleum-derived raw materials known as petrochemicals. Synthetic fibres are made up of numerous small chemical units called monomers that come together to form a bigger unit known as a polymer. Rayon, Nylon, Polyester, and Acrylic are the…

Chapter 1: Crop Production And Management Revision Notes Regular production, proper management, and distribution of food are all required to feed a huge population. Crop: A crop is formed when plants of the same kind are planted and maintained on a big scale in one location. Crops in India are divided into two groups based…

Chapter 2: Microorganisms-Friend And Foe Revision Notes Microorganisms are too small to be seen by our eyes. They cannot be seen without a microscope, except for fungus that grows on bread. Microorganisms are divided into four categories: Bacteria, fungus, protozoa, and certain algae are among these groupings. Viruses are tiny as well. They, on the…

Introduction We have heard mitochondria referred to as the powerhouse of the cell and ATP as the fuel. But how does our body create and maintain a steady supply of these energy rich molecules to power us through our day? This guide helps decipher cellular respiration: the process by which ATP molecules are created! What…

Introduction: Endocytosis and exocytosis are the mechanisms by which cells transport items that are too big to pass through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane directly into or out of the cell. Exocytosis and endocytosis are two processes that allow large molecules, bacteria, and waste materials to pass through the cell membrane. Endocytosis and…

Introduction The cells on the path of division pass through a series of carefully regulated and well-timed growth stages, replication of DNA, and cytoplasmic and nuclear division, which ultimately makes two identical or clone cells. The cell type and its development stage determine the frequency of cell division. The cell cycle is a complex process…

Introduction The human body comprises several types of cells, tissues, and organs. Our bodies emit substances to speed biological functions such as breathing, digestion, excretion, and other metabolic activities to maintain a healthy existence. As a result, enzymes play a critical role in all living beings, regulating all biological processes. Properties of enzymes The properties…

Introduction: Enzymes as catalysts Enzymes are biological catalysts; they are substances that speed up a chemical reaction—without being a reactant. Therefore, as catalysts, enzymes are only required in very low concentrations as they are not consumed during the reaction. A chemical reaction is the conversion of substrate molecules into product molecules. The substrate must first…

Introduction Water moves from high concentration to low concentration, just like other substances. The movement of water inside our bodies is essential for survival. Water moving into the cells or outside leads to many consequences. Let’s study what factors and how they affect water’s movement in or around the cells. Tonicity Tonicity is the ability…

Introduction: The eukaryotic cell is divided into several subcellular components, each with its environment and specific function. It is essential that all of these subcellular components of the cell function properly to keep the cell and the organism alive. As it will be seen, all the components have their discrete environments with different concentrations of…

Introduction: The ability of the cell to transport molecules in and out of itself is critical. Small molecules, virtually always simple ions like hydrogen, potassium, or sodium, can pass through the plasma membrane. Passive diffusion may allow the ions to pass through the pore formed by membrane proteins. In this case, the protein that allows…

Introduction Cells are the fundamental unit of life that make up every living organism on earth. There are two major categories of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are are differentiated by the presence or absence of a nucleus. Nuclei are present in eukaryotes, while prokaryotes house their genetic material in a non-membrane-bound…

Introduction: In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered cells under a compound microscope. He examined a piece of cork and saw minute shapes like little rooms. As a result, he termed his findings “cells.” In biology, a cell is a basic membrane-bound unit that contains the essential components of life. A single cell, such as a bacterium…

Introduction Cell membranes protect and organize cells. The structure and function of cells are critically reliant on membranes. The plasma membrane of a cell controls what enters the cell and how much of any given substance comes in. Cell Membranes Cell membranes protect and organize cells. The structure and function of cells are critically reliant…

Introduction The plasma membrane or cell membrane is the membrane found in all cells that separate the inside from the outside parts of the cell. In-plant and bacterial cells, a cell wall is linked to the plasma membrane on the exterior. The plasma membrane is made up of a semipermeable lipid bilayer. It helps in…

Introduction Plasma membranes are selectively permeable—they allow some substances to pass through, but not others. If they were to lose this selectivity, the cell would no longer be able to sustain itself, and it would be destroyed. Some cells require larger amounts of specific substances than do other cells; they must have a way of…

Introduction: Facilitated diffusion is a passive type of transport that does not need energy for the movement of molecules. So, let’s learn more about the process of facilitated diffusion along with the different types and examples. What is facilitated diffusion? The molecules move in the direction of the concentration gradient from a higher concentration region…

Introduction: Like any remote-controlled toy, cells have an antenna that receives incoming signals from a controller. Signal transduction is how the external signal transforms to an internal cellular response. The signal transduction pathway involves a three-step process. Signal transduction The process begins with the receptor receiving a signal. It may be a peptide, a small…

Introduction Cells are not an amorphous mass of proteins, lipids, and other substances. Instead, all cells are made up of well-defined compartments, each specializing in a certain role. In many circumstances, subcellular activities may be classified depending on whether they occur at the plasma membrane, within membrane-bound organelles, or inside the cytosol, such as golgi…

Introduction The hypothesis that evolution was universal was initially dismissed. People questioned whether humans were connected to the Great Apes, but Charles Darwin himself had difficulty linking the complex existence that humans lead back to the earliest single-celled organism! However, science has gone a long way since Darwin first sailed the world’s waters aboard the…

Introduction: Energy is often defined as the ability to do work and it manifests itself in several forms. Cells need energy to develop, degrade, and release a wide variety of substances. Mitochondria convert the food we eat and the air we breathe into “ATP”, a special type of fuel that powers our cells, and in…

Introduction Fitness reflects how well an organism is adapted to its environment. If an organism survives and produces viable offspring, it passes its genes on to its offspring, subsequently increasing their level of fitness and likelihood to survive. This study guide covers the basics of fitness and how it works. Let’s get started! Reproduction and…

Taxonomy of Mammals Mammals belong to the class Mammalia which is the phylum Chordata in the kingdom Animalia. There are 6,495 different mammal species divided into 125 families and 28 orders based on their distinct characteristic features. An animal is considered a mammal if it can produce milk. Other distinct taxonomic features that separate mammals…

Introduction: A species is a collection of organisms that can breed with one another and generate viable offspring while remaining reproductively separated from other creatures. This process is known as speciation. Therefore, let’s learn about speciation in detail. Key points on speciation: Speciation is the process of dividing a genetically homogeneous population into two or…

Introduction: Aristotle is known as the father of biology. However, many biologists contributed a lot to different parts of biology. In this topic, we will talk about one of the most famous personalities in the field of modern biology or the father of modern biology, Charles Darwin. His theories are the foundation of the other…

Introduction Rather than focusing on gene segregation within a cross or family, population genetics can be thought of as an extension of Mendelian genetics to the population level. While a single diploid individual may only have two alleles for any given gene, there can be many alleles at different frequencies in a population. A population…

Introduction: Our planet earth is billions of years old, but the conditions that sustained life developed later. Millions of years ago, when the ancient creatures walked this planet, they were unaware of the natural calamities and disasters. While changing the course of ecology and geography, these disasters also wiped away the prominent species that existed….

Introduction Charles Darwin initially theorized about the concept of natural selection in his book The Origin of Species following his landmark trip to the Galápagos Islands. Natural selection occurs when specific traits offer an advantage or disadvantage in survival or reproductive success. Advantageous traits are passed down to the next generation, while disadvantageous traits are…

Introduction Geologists estimate that the earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago based on radiometric dating, a technique used to measure the age of some of the oldest rocks and other geologic materials on the planet (which are still being discovered today!). Life did not fully flourish at that point in history, and survival…

Introduction: We have an infinite number of species in our environment. To organize these species, many botanists started classifying species on different bases in the past. The major contribution came from Carl Linnaeus. He gave various theories of the classification of organisms. In this section, we will talk about one of his most important contributions…

Introduction: Continents shifted, carbon dioxide levels varied, and temperatures altered during the late Precambrian. Many creatures were unable to adapt and died as a result of the changes. Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic are the four primary eras in order of age. Four primary eras Source Late Precambrian era: Source From roughly 2 billion to…

Introduction The phylum Arthropoda has about nine million species. All the arthropods, whether they are aquatic, terrestrial, or parasitic, have a chitinous exoskeleton and appendages that are jointed. This phylum is one of the most diverse animal groupings on the planet, including multiple large classes, like the largest phylum of the animal kingdom. Aquatic arthropods…

Introduction Plants can be seen in varied environments, from the desert to the tropical rain forests. You can also find plants in oceans and lakes. Plants can thrive in varied environments and support animal life. Animals get their food from plants, and plants also give insects and birds a place to build their nests. Right…

Introduction: A DNA molecule is more than simply a series of nucleotides. Instead, it is broken down into functional pieces known as genes. Each gene encodes a functional product or a molecule that performs a certain function in the cell. A protein is frequently the functional result of a gene. The method through which a…

Introduction The four classes of reptilia are: Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators), Sphenodontia (tuataras), Squamata (lizards and snakes), and Testudines. Crocodilia has 25 species, Sphenodontia has two species, Squamata has roughly 9,200 species, and Testudines has about 325 species. 1. Crocodilia Crocodilia emerged as a separate lineage during the middle Triassic, with alligators, crocodiles, gharials, and…

Introduction: Living things are classified under three major groups, namely Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The first two are classified under prokaryotes, while the third falls under eukaryotes. Very rare fossils have been found, which gives valuable information and helps discern the very first ancestor of each of these classes. The very early fossils that were…

Introduction: Based on the evolutionary data available, it is evident that the first living organisms found on earth were unicellular microorganisms. These unicellular organisms have evolved with time and show a striking resemblance to the current bacteria structure. Bacteria are often associated with several diseases, but, there exist certain good bacteria as well. This study…

Introduction A vertebrate is an animal from the Vertebrate Subphylum and the Chordate Phylum. They are characterized by a muscular system and have backbones. They are among the most recognizable organisms and species in the animal kingdom. There are about 6200 – 6500 diverse vertebrates discovered to date. They are also one of the most…

Introduction What are algae? Algae, singular alga, are a diverse group of aquatic plants and protists with the ability to conduct photosynthesis. They are responsible for the production of the 30-50% of the earth’s oxygen, thus playing a critical role in sustaining life for nearly all organisms. Most species of algae require moisture or a…

Introduction Did you know that viruses are technically parasites? Viruses are unable to reproduce independently and thus require a living organism within which to replicate, often harming or killing their host in the process. Scientists have studied viruses in detail – a scientific discipline by itself, known as virology. What are viruses? Source A virus…

Introduction Echinoderm is any group of marine invertebrates with a hard, spiny covering or skin belonging to the phylum Echinodermata. Echinoderms have a rich fossil history dating back to the Cambrian Period (542 million to 488 million years ago). They are well represented by numerous strange taxa, which are now extinct. Crinoidea (sea lilies and…

Introduction: Science has developed a lot. Technology advancement in biology has been assisting science in peeping inside the body of a living organism for the past many years. Biotechnology has made several things easily accessible for scientists that have become a matter of concern. Some steps that have been taken after the advancement of biotechnology…

Introduction: Gene expression in organisms is the process by which information in the DNA is finally converted into a functional product! The activation of certain genes and their respective proteins are determined by a complex series of interactions between genes, RNA molecules, proteins (including transcription factors), and other components of the expression system. Some genes…

Introduction: Prokaryotic organisms are small single-celled organisms that have a very simple structure. The Prokaryotic cells have a plasma membrane. However, these do not have any internal membrane-bound organelles in their cytoplasm. Do prokaryotes have a nucleus? Nope, they don’t. Infact, the lack of the nucleus and the other membrane-bound organelles differentiate the prokaryotes from…

Introduction: The word “insect” means having a divided body or “insectum” in Latin. The study of insects is called Entomology. Insects are a group of winged arthropods with a head, abdomen, thorax, six jointed legs, and antennae. They are the widest animals, having more than one million different species. Some common examples are butterflies, cockroaches,…

Introduction: In simple terms, population refers to the total number of organisms in a group. The human population can be studied as discrete units or as a number as a whole. The scientific study of the population is called demography. It entails studying how the numbers originate, what keeps them stable and what causes them…

Introduction Different animals may have specialized limbs or other structures for running, hopping, climbing, flying, or swimming. Mammalian limbs are generally quite mobile and capable of rotation. Another distinguishing trait is the arrangement of mammalian limbs under the body, rather than out to the sides as in lizards and most other reptiles. Let’s learn about…

Introduction: Viruses are infectious unicellular microorganisms with genetic material like DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat. A viral disease is caused when a pathogenic virus infects and proliferates inside a host organism and damages its immune system. There are many types of virus infections, based on the organs infected, types of viruses, mode…

Introduction: Some organisms in both the plant and animal kingdom evolved relationships that benefited one or both. Whether it is a defense against other predators or an adaptation that helps thrive by offering what the other lacks, the organisms live in a symbiotic relationship. What is symbiosis? A symbiotic relationship is between two dissimilar organisms…

Introduction: The Late Triassic age was when the mammals arose approximately 200 million years ago. The earliest known mammals were called morganucodontids — tiny creatures that lived amongst the dinosaurs. There were many other mammals around at that time, but these mammals were the only ones who managed to survive and prosper. Mammalian ancestors Mammals…

Introduction: Marsupials are mammals that nurture their young in an external pouch on the front or underside of its body. On the other hand, a placental mammal is a mammal that completes embryo development inside the mother and is sustained by the placenta. Marsupial mammals: Source The baby’s premature delivery and ongoing growth distinguish this…

Introduction Mating is linked to a large rise in offspring’s evolutionary fitness. The production of genetic variation is one of the most commonly accepted theories that indicate the advantage of sexual reproduction. There are three plausible explanations for this. Sexual reproduction brings together advantageous mutations that increase a species’ fitness. Sexual reproduction brings together detrimental…

Introduction There are thousands of plant species around the world, and they come in all shapes and sizes! Why are plants important? Plants are important not just to humans but to sustain all life on earth. Life on earth is not possible without plants. Be it a tree or a shrub, all plants have a…

Introduction Animal classification must be considered to understand how all living organisms are related. Species are arranged according to their characteristics according to the Linnaeus Method. The system of animal kingdom classification was founded by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in the 1700s. Linnaean taxonomy of animals is a science of classifying organisms, also known…

Introduction: The fact that bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic creatures prevents the existence of a male or female form of the organism. Bacteria reproduce asexually! When an asexual reproduction process is used, the ‘parent’ creates a genetically identical replica of themselves. How do bacteria reproduce? Binary fission is the asexual reproduction method used by bacteria, and…

Introduction: Evolution is the process of living things changing over a period of time. Science teaches us that humans can trace their development from early single-celled organisms to vertebrates and, much later, apes and modern humans throughout billions of years. Similarly, all other living organisms have an evolutionary history stretching back to millions or billions…

Introduction: If we go by the theological concepts of the source of our existence, we find one thing in common in every sophisticated society, that human beings transcended to this planet from a divine source. This means we were “created” from head to toe by an all-powerful entity. However, this theological theory has its shortcomings…

Introduction An endotherm is a creature that keeps its body at a metabolically favorable temperature, mostly by using heat created by internal biological operations rather than relying nearly entirely on ambient heat. The internally produced heat is mostly a byproduct of the animal’s ordinary metabolism. Still, an endotherm may employ unique systems tuned to heat…

Introduction The stem is generally the axis of the plant that bears buds, shoots with leaves, and roots at its basal end. It is the main structure that transports water, food, and mineral salts to the other parts of plants. Stems also store food, and those that are green generally assist in its production. This…

Introduction Mammals are widely distributed and are more adaptable compared to other organisms. The ability of mammals to adapt to different continental regions is attributed largely to their ability to regulate their body temperatures in excessive heat conditions and severe cold. Mammals overview There are more than 5,500 species of living mammals habituated to different…

Introduction The roots of the plants are vascular parts of plants that are found underground. They are the first parts of the plant to grow. Their important functions include water and nutrient absorption, that are critical for plant growth. However, while most plants have roots, they are absent in some plants like liverworts and mosses….

Introduction: Fishes are cold-blooded creatures with streamlined bodies. The majority of the fish are spindle-shaped and have fins to assist them in swimming. There are about 34,000 species of fish and these are classified as follows: Class Placodermi Source According to fossil evidence, these are extinct creatures that lived throughout the Palaeozoic era’s Silurian, Devonian,…

Introduction: Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, meaning they have a nucleus and specialized components called organelles that perform various roles. Chloroplasts are unique organelles found in plant cells that produce sugars through photosynthesis. They also have a cell wall to support their structure, and this sets them apart from animal cells. This guide takes you…

Introduction: Flowers and fruit are two unique reproductive systems responsible for angiosperms’ success. The flower’s purpose is to ensure pollination. Flowers also shield the developing embryo and ovule inside the receptacle. The fruit’s purpose is to disperse seeds. They also safeguard the growing seed. Different Types of Angiosperms Flower: Flowers are sporophylls, which are modified…

Introduction According to the endosymbiotic theory and it’s evidence, scientists propose that the earliest protists evolved from prokaryotes (single-celled organisms) based on available evidence. And that eukaryotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from prokaryotes that lived within larger prokaryotic cells. This is known as the endosymbiosis theory. The similarity between the DNA of algae…

Introduction There are around 10,000 distinct species of reptiles on the planet, and they are cold-blooded creatures from the Animal Kingdom of Phylum Chordata. Reptiles can be found in various places, like a desert, jungle, forest, or even our backyard. Their skin is covered with scales or bone plates. Turtles, crocodilians, squamates (lizards and snakes),…

Introduction Anyone can have a fungal infection, which can arise in any region of the body. A vaginal yeast infection, a jock with an athlete’s foot, or a newborn with thrush are just a few instances. A variety of fungi can cause fungal infections. Fungi that aren’t normally present on or inside your body can…

Introduction: Fungi are abundant in the soil and air, as well as in lakes, rivers, and oceans, on and among plants and animals, in food and clothes, and the human body. In collaboration with bacteria, Fungi break down organic matter and release carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus into the soil and environment. Many domestic and…

Introduction Reptiles, a class under phylum Chordata, are tetrapod vertebrates that show a gradual complication in organ structures and resemble many structures present in a higher group of vertebrates. Similarly, like other vertebrates, reptiles too maintain separate sexes, males and females. Although reptiles are a group that shows great variety, the basic reptile reproductive structure…

Introduction: An amphibian’s digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems are all the same. The cloaca is a body cavity shared by all three systems. Wastes from the digestive and excretory systems enter the cloaca, whereas gametes enter the reproductive system. An opening in the cloaca permits wastes and gametes to exit the body. Amphibians have a…

Introduction: The majority of fungi are capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction. By budding, yeast multiplies asexually, and other fungi create spores to reproduce asexually. When two parents’ spores combine to produce a zygospore, sexual reproduction occurs. Asexual Reproduction: In most cases of asexual reproduction, a single individual produces a genetic copy of the…

Introduction: Fungi are a kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make their own food and rely on other sources) and play key roles in nutrient recycling in an ecosystem. They are also called eukaryotic fungi. Fungi include microorganisms like yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. Fungi usually grow in moist and warm places to…

Introduction: Animals that can survive in aquatic and terrestrial environments are called amphibians (class Amphibia). The term amphibian, derived from the Greek amphibios, which means “living a double life,” represents this dual life strategy—though some species are permanent land residents, while others live entirely in the water. There are around 8,100 species of amphibians alive…

Introduction: There are around 145,000 species of fungi known to humans to date, but according to estimations, the actual number is much higher and goes over 3 million species of fungi! Yeast, molds, mildews, mushrooms, etc., are all examples of fungi. Fungi have medicinal usage, commercial usage, used as a food product, and several other…

Introduction: For a long time, taxonomists have considered fungi to belong to the plant kingdom because of their many similarities with plants. Similar to plants, fungi are immobile, grow in soil, have a cell wall, and some (such as lichens) even look like plants. However, the origin of fungi has no real connection with plants…

Introduction: Amphibians are species from the Class Amphibia of the Phylum Chordata. These are a diverse class of animals, such as frogs, toads, salamanders, caecilians, etc., that can live both on land and in water. They possess soft and sticky skin and respire through their gills and lungs. Evolution of Amphibians: Source THE DEVONIAN ERA…

Introduction: Internal fertilization, amniotic development, and epidermal scales covering part or all of their bodies characterize reptiles. They are air-breathing vertebrates that have certain special features that make them different from the other classes. General characteristics of Reptiles: Tetrapod animals that generate amniotic eggs are known as reptiles. Crocodiles, alligators, lizards, snakes, and turtles are…

Introduction Succession in biology can be defined as the gradual process of change that occurs in our ecosystem. This change impacts the whole community which can occur in a new habitat or in a damaged or previously colonized habitat. Change in species over time can be observed in succession. Let’s learn more about this process…

Introduction Viruses are submicroscopic – meaning they can’t even be seen under magnification. The name Virus is derived from a Latin word that means “slimy liquid” or “poison.” Culturing cells on glass surfaces made it possible to identify those that cause illnesses based on their effects on cells (cytopathogenic effect) and the existence of antibodies…

Introduction: The human body is a complex living system. The reproductive system is a fascinating part of the human body. From the time of conception, fertilization of the egg through implantation, the embryonic stage, fetal development, and ultimately the birth of the baby. Each stage of baby growth during pregnancy, from embryo development to fetus…

Introduction Child development is something that is believed to start from infancy. However, the pregnancy development stages are also a crucial mode of the development process. Prenatal development stages are a span of remarkable changes that then sets the stage for future growth. The brain grows in the prenatal period, and it then continues to…

Introduction The immune system is tricky. At times it is overactive and starts to attack the body, and other times, it is too dormant, and is not capable of defending the invaders. Finding a balance between the two (talk about extreme!) depends on the functioning of the innate immune system. The innate immune system needs…

Introduction: Bacteria live anywhere and almost on all media. This is because they have minimal nutrient requirements – a carbon source, a nitrogen source, and inorganic salts. The other conditions needed for the survival of life are also minimal in the case of bacteria. Mode of Nutrition in Bacteria: Bacteria obtain energy from various resources….

Introduction Sperm is another name for spermatozoon, and its plural form is spermatozoa which is the male reproductive cell produced by humans and most animals. These sperms are produced in the male testes, which produces new offspring when released in the female part. Source Structure of Sperm Under microscopic observation, it is found by researchers…

Introduction: A wound or tissue damage or entry of a foreign object into the body can cause the tissue adjacent to the damaged or infected region to become swollen or reddened, causing pain. The process of inflammation involves two cellular events of inflammation and immune system inflammation. What is an inflammatory response? The inflammatory response…

Introduction: Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants in the air, which are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. According to the World Health Organization, 90% of the earth’s population is currently breathing in air, exceeding the WHO’s guideline limit for clean air! Around 5-7 million deaths every year are…

Introduction Protozoa are heterotrophic, unicellular eukaryotic creatures. They can either live freely or as parasites. There are around 65000 protozoan species classified into several categories. They don’t have a cell wall. Protozoa go through several phases throughout their life cycle. Some stages of the life cycle are contagious. General characteristics of Protozoa Protozoa can be…

Introduction Organisms belonging to Class Amphibia under the Chordata Phylum are called Amphibians. There are about 3000 species at present. These are multicellular vertebrate species that live on land as well as water. They are also the 1st type of cold-blooded animals to exist on this planet. General characteristics of Amphibians: They can live on…

Introduction The human nervous system is complex. The brain is the main control center, and the spinal cord acts as a highway connecting the brain. The nerve carries messages from the brain to the body and vice versa so that the brain can interpret the signal and take the necessary action. Diseases that affect the…

Introduction: Life has thrived on earth for more than 3.5 billion years now, and this huge amount of geological time allowed life to exist, evolve, and occupy every ecosystem present. We can study these from the fossils present on large rocks in various parts of the world. These not only show the life that was…

Introduction Food is one of the most important things for human beings. We need food to sustain life as food provides nutrients that we need to grow and keep up our energy. Food is both a solid substance that can be consumed and in liquid form that we drink every day. The term nutrition refers…

Introduction Every time you run a fever, your immune system raises the body’s temperature to kill the infection. Our immune system is responsible for killing off any infections that try to invade our bodies. The HIV virus slowly destroys the immune system by damaging white blood cells and it leads to AIDS if not treated…

Introduction A large number of additional bacterial species are also involved in the transmission of human diseases and the ones already mentioned. On the other hand, all bacteria do not pose the same threat to human health in the same way. Contrary to popular belief, many of the trillions of bacteria that live in or…

Introduction A virus is a submicroscopic and small microscopic agent that replicates inside the human body’s living cells only. It cannot replicate alone. They are essentially made up of DNA or RNA that is surrounded by a protein coat. They use the components of a host cell and make copies of themselves. They often cause…

Introduction The main protectors of our body, the white blood cells, are released by the immune system. These white blood cells are divided into B cells and T cells. Antigens, which are invaders, are combated by B and T cells. B cells produce antibodies that are particular to the sickness that your body identifies. T…

Introduction: Viral evolution is an important aspect of viral diseases such as influenza, HIV, Hepatitis, etc. There is much debate and confusion about the origin of viruses among virologists, and they have evolved and come up with three basic hypotheses regarding this. Origin of viruses: There are three classical hypotheses about the origin and evolution…

Introduction: As a virus is an intracellular pathogen, it cannot replicate without any metabolism and machinery of a host cell. Hence a virus must first invade a cell before viral replication can occur. Viral Replication or Reproduction A virus will multiply only in living cells and organisms. The host cell provides energy, synthetic machinery, and…

Introduction: Normal bone formation and growth is dependent on an adequate intake of nutrients. Bone development starts from conception and continues until early adulthood or in the early 20s. The growth of the bones stops but continues increasing in density and mass by mineralization to build strength and flexibility. The formation of new bone cells…

Introduction: The balance of all the ecosystems around the world is a huge factor in the survival of the human species. The system responsible for this stability is biodiversity! The system is never static-it goes through constant changes, and this evolution is seen in an entire species and each organism. Biodiversity definition Source You can…

Introduction: Although water covers more than 70% of the planet’s surface, there is a water shortage! Drinking water is limited and, therefore, should be utilized with utmost care. Both water and soil are renewable resources and provide us with numerous benefits, but exploitation of these resources can be very detrimental to human life. Let’s know…

Introduction Contraction of muscles is the muscles’ shortening, tightening, and lengthening when you do some activity. You can feel the muscles contraction when you hold them, or you pick up something. You also feel it when you exercise or stretch!Contraction and relaxation of muscles go hand-in-hand. Muscle contraction is followed by muscle relaxation when the…

Introduction: The demographic transition theory of population growth was coined by the American demographer Frank W. Notestein (1945). It uses methods from history, economics, anthropology, sociology, and other fields to influence economic growth, structural productivity growth, living standards, savings rates, consumption, and investment of a country. What is demographic transition? The theory of demographic transition…

Introduction Ecologists who study populations use several mathematical methods to understand the growth patterns of any given population of organisms. The increase in the population of any group of organisms depends on a number of factors that decide the population growth curve. Based on the parameters of the equations, accurate predictions can be made about…

Introduction Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), also known as heart diseases, are the leading cause of death globally. The term cardiovascular disease comprises blood vessel diseases that include coronary artery disease, arrhythmias or heart rhythm complications, congenital heart defects, and heart infections. Heart diseases are typically a result of arteries building-up fatty deposits (atherosclerosis). Contracting or tightening…

Introduction: Every human being born on this earth has the right to have enough resources on earth. Still, with the population reaching about 8 billion currently, many people will be left to have a low standard of life due to the earth being pushed to its ecological breaking point. Overpopulation is a sensitive issue because…

Introduction Shortly after conception, the reproductive system of the embryo begins to mature. SRY, a male Y chromosome gene, is essential in initiating a series of processes that stimulate testis growth while repressing female structure development. The hormone testosterone supports the advancement of male sexual organs and is produced by Leydig cells in the embryonic…

Introduction: Competition is a struggle between two organisms for a required outcome. We know there is competition everywhere, at work, market, sports, political parties. Competition occurs when two species want the same resource, and there is not enough of it available, and as a result, they compete for it. What is Competition in Biology? Competition…

Introduction Drugs, their consumption, and the nervous system are correlated. Human bodies have natural drugs and pathways that can make us feel happy or provide relief when in pain. For example, endorphins are naturally produced drugs in the body. The drugs react and travel in the body through the central nervous system and activate the…

Introduction The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which runs from the mouth to the anus, is a series of hollow organs that are connected to each other. This pathway by which food enters the body and solid wastes are expelled, is affected by gastrointestinal illnesses. Types of Gastrointestinal Diseases There are 2 types of GI disorders, namely…

Introduction: The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, extending approximately 6 meters! It is a helical structure extending from the stomach to the large intestine, and is the main organ that carries out the digestive process. Anatomy of the Small Intestine The small intestine consists of three parts: Duodenum Jejunum Ileum…

Introduction Blood is a tissue made up of 80% water and 20% solid. The tissues are mostly made of plasma that contains crucial components like proteins, glucose, and salts to carry nutrients to the body’s different cells. It strengthens the body’s immune system and fights against infections or diseases in our body. Blood helps our…

Introduction Glands are organs of the body that make hormones, tears, saliva, milk, sweat, or digestive juices. There are mainly two types of glands, endocrine glands, which release the produced substances directly into the bloodstream, and exocrine glands, which secrete the produced substances into either internal or external ducts of the body. What is the…

Introduction The presence of a Y or X chromosome guides sexual development and the determination of reproductive system organs. In other words, we are often genetically programmed to grow as either a male or female embryo after conception. Before differentiating into the testes and ovaries, the sex glands go through an indifferent period. The presence…

Introduction The most essential compound needed to sustain life is carbon, an astonishing element that exists naturally as carbon-12, which makes up almost 99% of the carbon in the universe; carbon-13, which makes up approximately 1%; and carbon-14, which makes up a minuscule fraction of overall carbon but is highly significant in dating biological materials….

Introduction The functioning of various body processes, from electrolytes in the blood to the growth and development in adolescents, is controlled by hormones. Hormones act on cellular systems to regulate their functioning on a day-to-day basis. A network of glands controls the hormones called the endocrine system. Whenever a person has a disruption in hormone…

Introduction Carbohydrates are macronutrients found in certain foods and drinks that make our bodies healthy. It is an essential part of the primary food intake to constitute a balanced diet. Carbohydrates, commonly known as carbs, are among the three primary nutrients our body needs, along with proteins and fats. Carbohydrates are further broken down into…

Introduction Every month, the female body undergoes natural changes, referred to as a menstrual cycle. Menstruation begins at puberty and stops at menopause. The cycle lasts on average 28 days; however, it can last anywhere from 20 to 40 days. The initial day of a cycle corresponds to the start of a menstrual period, and…

Introduction The female reproductive system comprises two ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and the vagina. There also exist certain other accessory reproductive structures that together comprise the female’s reproductive system. This guide mainly focuses on the female reproductive system, as well as its anatomy and functions. The Female Reproductive System To ensure the continuation of…

Introduction: The plants absorb as little as 1% of the emitted sunlight from the sun, convert it into a form of energy sufficient to power and support life on the earth. This occurs in a sequence of nutrient flow cycles amongst the living and nonliving components of the ecosystem. This guide helps to understand the…

Introduction This guide covers 5 basic concepts: evolution, cell theory, gene theory, homeostasis, and laws of thermodynamics. As we take a sneak peek into some foundational concepts, it is observed that biology branches into three categories: medical science, the study of plant-based medicines; botany, the study of plants; and zoology, which is the study of…

Introduction Lemonade on a hot summer day is the most refreshing! Have you ever wondered where the delicious sour taste comes from? Lemons get their sourness from citric acid, present in almost all citrus fruits. The word acid comes from the Latin word ‘acere,’ meaning ‘sour.’ There are thousands of other ways you interact with…

Introduction: Many important substances comprise air, including nitrogen and oxygen, essential for life to sustain on earth. Standard dry air consists of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, neon, helium, carbon dioxide, krypton, hydrogen, and xenon. As air is the base for most species on earth, there are prerequisites for its quality. We need high-quality air to breathe…

Introduction The Earth is far from homogenous. Regions vary in climatic conditions, landscapes, and distributions of resources. Thus, species living in different geographical locations have different traits and characteristics uniquely adapted for their environment that are essential for their survival. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species across latitude, longitude, elevation area, and…

Introduction Ethology is the study of animal behavior, preferably under natural conditions. It is one of few non-medicine biological disciplines that shows how animal behaviors are controlled by genes and may evolve through natural selection. Charles Darwin, the first modern ethologist, led the way for understanding evolution, natural selection of partners, and reproductive processes, which…

Chemosynthesis Chemosynthesis is a term coined by Wilhelm Pfeffer in 1897 to explain how plants and some organisms produce food in the absence of sunlight and oxygen. Instead of these raw materials, chemosynthetic organisms use inorganic compounds to produce glucose, giving them energy. What is Chemosynthesis? Chemosynthesis is a process involving converting one or more…

Chapter 13: Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Field and Field Lines A magnet is a substance that creates a magnetic field that attracts or repels other magnetic materials. Lodestone is a type of magnet that occurs naturally. It attracts metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, among others. North and South Poles A bipolar magnet…

Forces of Evolution The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that genetic variance in a population will remain stable across generations. In actual populations, the requirements for such are unlikely to be satisfied. So how does this theorem assist us in comprehending evolution in the actual world? We may deduce factors that cause allele frequencies to fluctuate from…

Introduction Our cells can detect what is happening around them and respond in real-time. They also take cues from the environment and its neighbors. Even during this second, your cells are taking and sending a million messages in the form of chemical signals. Cells thus communicate continuously.So how do cells communicate? How do cells communicate…

Introduction: Like any remote-controlled toy, Cells have an antenna that receives incoming signals from a controller. Signal transduction is how the external signal transforms to an internal cellular response. The signal transduction pathway involves a three-step process. Signal transduction The process begins with the receptor receiving a signal. It may be a peptide, a small…

Introduction: Hormones usually alter conditions inside the cells in response to stimuli. In this way, they are activated at certain specific times. Hence, they must be turned on and turned off in a loop manner. Every hormone controls the cells, and they are very important in the process of homeostasis. These hormones are, in turn,…

Introduction: All living organisms are made of cells. While responding to external stimuli, these cells are constantly communicating and coordinating with each other in signals. The signal transduction pathway facilitates the transfer of signals from the extracellular to the intracellular environment, facilitating a particular cellular response. When multiple Signal Transduction Pathways interact, they form transduction…

Introduction The function of the enzyme is related to its structure. So if the structure of an enzyme changes, its factors will change too. Factors like pH and temperature can cause a disruption in the hydrogen bonds in the enzyme, which makes them denature. The concentration of the substrate molecules in any solution can also…

Check out awesome, educational VR rooms on Inspirit’s mobile app (available for iOS and Android devices)🤩 Introduction: The cell cycle is also known as the cell division cycle. It is a series of processes in a cell as it grows and divides into two offspring daughter cells. The steps include duplicating DNA cells and separating…

INTRODUCTION What does one mean by molality? What is molality in chemistry? Molality is a characteristic of any solution, defined as the total number of moles of solute present per kilogram of solvent. A solution primarily consists of two components- solvent and solute. There are various ways and calculations to express the concentration of solutions,…